Last Modified 14 August 1998
George P. Murdock
and Diana O. Morrow. 1970. Subsistence Economy and Supportive Practices: Cross-Cultural
Codes 1. ETHNOLOGY 9:302-330.
Compiled with permission
of Ethnology journal editors.
This file presents
a body of coded cultural data pertaining to the derivation, transportation,
preservation, and storage of food in a typical (or focal) community in each
of the 186 SCCS societies. The reader who uses the coded materials should bear
in mind two warnings. First, since the data for each society have been assessed
or "pinpointed" with reference to a particular local group at a particular date,
the codes may not hold true for the larger society as a whole. For such complex
and diversified cultures as those of the Burmese, Chinese, Egyptians, Japanese,
Russians, Turks, and Vietnamese, for example, the indicated absence of such
traits as banks, fishing, improved highways, markets, and motorized land and
water transport, however valid for the pinpointed locality, may actually be
misrepresentative of the total society. Second, since the data were coded primarily
with reference to food or subsistence, the reader should not assume that the
codes adequately reflect the actual importance of such activities as trade,
animal husbandry, or transportation in the total culture. Variable 5, for example,
assesses only the contribution of animal husbandry to the food supply and ignores
its importance in other respects, e.g., as a source of prestige or of products
other than food.
1. INTERCOMMUNITY TRADE AS FOOD SOURCE # of Code Descriptive Cases # = Label 3 . = Missing Data 7 1 = No Trade 51 2 = Food Imports absent although trade present Food Imports present, and contribute: 4 3 = Salt or Minerals only 81 4 = < 10% of food (90% form local extractive sources) 38 5 = < 50% of food, and less than any single local source - 6 = < 50% of food, and more than any single local source 2 7 = > 50% of food 2. FOOD IMPORT ACQUISITION 62 . = Missing Data 49 1 = Direct individual exchanges 10 2 = Indirect individual exchanges 28 3 = Local markets 34 4 = Middlemen 3 5 = Three or four of above 3. AGRICULTURE- CONTRIBUTION TO LOCAL FOOD SUPPLY 35 1 = None 3 2 = Non-food Crops 17 3 = < 10% 12 4 = < 50%, and less than any other single source, incl. trade 42 5 = < 50%, and more than any other single source, incl. trade 77 6 = Primarily agricultural 5. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY- CONTRIBUTION TO FOOD SUPPLY 8 1 = None 41 2 = Present, not food source 67 3 = < 10% food supply 33 4 = < 50% - chiefly meat 21 5 = < 50% - chiefly dairy S 6 = < 50% - chiefly honey 16 7 = > 50% 7. FISHING- CONTRIBUTION TO FOOD SUPPLY 2 . = Missing Data 27 1 = None 79 2 = < 10% food supply 55 3 = < 50%, and less than any other single source, incl. trade 10 4 = < 50%, and more than any other single source, incl. trade 13 5 = > 50% 9. HUNTING- CONTRIBUTION TO FOOD SUPPLY 4 . = Missing Data 18 1 = None 3 2 = Not food source 85 3 = < 10% food supply 61 4 = < 50%, and less than any other single source, incl. trade 8 5 = < 50%, and more than any other single source, incl. trade 7 6 = > 50% 11. GATHERING- CONTRIBUTION TO FOOD SUPPLY 4 . = Missing Data 16 1 = None 116 2 = < 10% food supply 40 3 = < 50%, and less than any other single source, incl. trade 7 4 = < 50%, and more than any other single source, incl. trade 3 5 = > 50% 13. LAND TRANSPORT (especially regarding food transport) 1 . = Missing Data 108 1 = Human Carriers, incl. tumpline 41 2 = Pack Animals 13 3 = Draft Animals (sleds, travois) 12 4 = Animal Drawn Wheeled vehicles 11 5 = Motorized vehicles 15. WATER TRANSPORT 5 . = Missing Data 20 1 = None, but feasible note: 1 & 2 should be reversed 56 2 = Not feasible 10 3 = Floats or rafts 73 4 = Human powered craft 20 5 = Sail powered craft 2 6 = Motorized craft 17. MONEY (MEDIA OF EXCHANGE) AND CREDIT 3 . = Missing Data 77 1 = No media of exchange or money 12 2 = Domestically usable articles as media of exchange 263 = Tokens of conventional value as media of exchange 424 = Foreign coinage or paper currency 265 = Indigenous coinage or paper currency 18. CREDIT SOURCE 17 . = Missing Data 113 1 = Personal loans between friends or relatives 26 2 = Internal money lending specialists 23 3 = External money lending specialists 7 5 = Banks or comparable institutions 20. FOOD STORAGE 4 . = Missing Data 36 1 = None 129 2 = Individual households 7 3 = Communal facilities 3 4 = Political agent controlled repositories 7 5 = Economic agent controlled repositories 21. FOOD SURPLUS VIA STORAGE . = Missing Data 69 1 = None or barely adequate 84 2 = Simple or adequate 33 3 = Complex or More than adequate INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD Barry, Herbert, III, and Leonora M. Paxson. 1971. Infancy and Early Childhood: Cross-Cultural Codes 2. ETHNOLOGY 10: 466-508. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. Variables 23-32 deal with infancy only, from the first year until the transition to early childhood (see 38-39, 42, 44), usually at 12-18 months. The early and late infancy periods of variables 24-27 refer to the first few months after birth versus the period after crawling begins, usually around 9 months. Variables 33-38 include both infancy and early childhood, the latter usually to the age of 4-5 years. Variables 39-50 deal with the transition to childhood, around 12-18 months. Variables 51-60 provide a comparison of infancy and childhood. 23. SLEEPING PROXIMITY OF PARENTS TO INFANT 13 . = Missing Data - 1 = Mo and Fa in different room than infant 12 2 = Mo same room (not bed) as infant, Fa different room - 3 = Mo same room (not bed) as infant, Fa unspecified 30 4 = Mo same room (not bed) as infant, Fa different bed 55 5 = Mo, Fa same room as infant, beds not specified 24 6 = Mo same bed as infant, Fa different room 5 7 = Mo same bed as infant, Fa not specified 24 8 = Mo same bed as infant, Fa same room 23 9 = Mo and Fa in same bed as infant 24. BODILY RESTRICTIVENESS - EARLY INFANCY 55 . = Missing Data 42 1 = None except in emergency 1 2 = Loose confinement - Tether or playpen 21 3 = Limited space - Bed or hammock 41 4 = Movement limited - Swaddling, heavy blankets 26 5 = Often Bound - Cradle Board 25. BODILY RESTRICTIVENESS - LATER INFANCY 63 . = Missing Data 61 1 = None except in emergency 8 2 = Loose confinement - Tether or playpen 14 3 = Limited space - Bed or hammock 23 4 = Movement limited - Swaddling, heavy blankets 17 5 = Often Bound - Cradle Board 26. BODILY CONTACT - EARLY INFANCY 65 . = Missing Data 3 1 = Limited to routine and precautionary care 16 2 = Occasionally 33 3 = Up to 1/2 time 49 4 = > 1/2 time 20 5 = Almost Constantly 27. BODILY CONTACT - LATE INFANCY 69 . = Missing Data 3 1 = Limited to routine and precautionary care 15 2 = Occasionally 41 3 = Up to 1/2 time 43 4 = > 1/2 time 15 5 = Almost Constantly 31. INFANT CRYING- RESPONSE 83 . = Missing Data 3 1 = Indifferent or punitive 3 2 = Slow or perfunctory, nurturant 19 3 = Speedy but inconsistently nurturant 67 4 = Generally speedy, nurturant 11 5 = Always speedy, nurturant 32. INFANT CRYING- AMOUNT 139 . = Missing Data 16 1 = Very Infrequent and brief 10 2 = Infrequent and short 9 3 = Infrequent and prolonged 11 4 = Frequent and short 1 5 = Frequent and prolonged 33. CHILDHOOD PAIN INFLICTION 38 . = Missing Data 17 1 = Absent 37 2 = Only neonatally or very mild pain 63 3 = Occasional mild pain 25 4 = Frequent mild pain or infrequent severe pain 6 5 = Frequent pain - 6 = Very painful 34. POST-PARTUM SEX TABOO 52 . = Missing data 2 1 = Intercourse expected soon after birth 7 2 = None 29 3 = 1 month or less 42 4 = 6 months or less 12 5 = 1 year or less 20 6 = 2 years or less 22 7 = > 2 years 35. CEREMONIALISM SURROUNDING CHILD, BEYOND NUCLEAR FAMILY 7 . = Missing Data 20 1 = None 73 2 = Only within first 2 months 56 3 = One occasion at later age 20 4 = Two or more ceremonies 10 5 = Prominent 36. MAGICAL PROTECTIVENESS APPLIED TO PARENTS AND CHILD 8 . = Missing Data 8 1 = None 22 2 = Only neonatal period, e.g., couvade 76 3 = Slight, neonatally and later 66 4 = Moderate, neonatally and later 6 5 = Exaggerated, neonatally and later 37. PHYSICAL PROTECTIVENESS AGAINST CHILDHOOD ILLNESS 20 . = Missing Data 1 1 = No special effort 43 2 = Slight 79 3 = Moderate, e.g., regular baths 39 4 = Some exceptional techniques, e.g., medicines, ointments, diapers 4 5 = Variety of exceptional techniques 39. WEANING- AGE AND SEVERITY 29 . = Missing Date 103 1 = > 2 years and gentle 27 2 = > 2 years and severe 17 3 = > 1 year and gentle 5 4 = > 1 year and severe 3 5 = > 6 months and gentle 1 6 = > 6 months and severe 1 7 = < 6 months and gentle - 8 = < 6 months and severe 40. MOTOR SKILLS- ENCOURAGEMENT IN CHILDHOOD 109 . = Missing Data 2 1 = Discourage or punish early development 2 2 = Ignore development 22 3 = No active assistance, but attention given 42 4 = Definite but inconsistent rewards 9 5 = Strong Encouragement and assistance 41. AUTONOMY- ENCOURAGEMENT IN CHILDHOOD 81 . = Missing Data 25 1 = > 4 years and gradual 3 2 = > 4 years and abrupt 54 3 = 2-4 years and gradual 23 4 = 2-4 years and abrupt, or < 2 years and gradual - 5 = < 2 years and abrupt *note: recode category 4 42. ELIMINATION- ENCOURAGEMENT OF CONTROL IN CHILDHOOD 123 0 = None 7 1 = 3-5 years 27 2 = > 18 months 9 3 = > 1 year 7 4 = > 6 months 13 5 = < 6 months 43. COVERING GENITALS- AGE 50 0 = Even adults uncovered 85 1 = Very late 14 2 = Late 2 3 = > 1 year 1 4 = < 6 months 34 5 = After birth 44. WEANING- AGE OF ONSET 30 . = Missing Data 19 1 = up to 12 months 12 2 = 13 - 20 months 67 3 = 21 - 24 6 4 = 25 - 30 36 5 = 31 - 36 9 6 = 37 - 42 7 7 = 43 - 48 - 8 = 49 - 60 - 9 = 61 - 72 45. WEANING- AGE OF TERMINATION 30 . = Missing Data 7 1 = up to 12 months 5 2 = 13 - 20 38 3 = 21 - 24 8 4 = 25 - 30 64 5 = 31 - 36 16 6 = 37 - 42 14 7 = 43 - 48 4 8 = 49 - 60 - 9 = 61 - 72 months 51. NON-MATERNAL RELATIONSHIPS, INFANCY 24 . = Missing Data 5 1 = Almost Exclusively Mother 81 2 = Principally Mother, others minor roles 63 3 = Principally Mother, others important roles 10 4 = Mother < 1/2 care 2 5 = Mother minor but significant 1 6 = Mother minimal except for nursing 52. NON-MATERNAL RELATIONSHIPS, EARLY CHILDHOOD 50 . = Missing Data - 1 = Almost Exclusively Mother 36 2 = Principally Mother, others important roles 60 3 = Mother < 1/2 care 38 4 = Primarily others 2 5 = Exclusively others 53. ROLE OF FATHER, INFANCY 32 . = Missing Data 8 1 = Distant 27 2 = Rarely close 72 3 = Occasionally close 44 4 = Frequently close 3 5 = Regularly close 54. ROLE OF FATHER, EARLY CHILDHOOD 36 . = Missing Data 4 1 = Distant 18 2 = Rarely Close 46 3 = Occasionally Close 73 4 = Frequently Close 9 5 = Regularly Close 55. PRINCIPAL RELATIONSHIPS, INFANCY CARETAKERS AND COMPANIONS 48 . = Missing Data 31 1 = Children, Females 4 2 = Children, unspecified 11 3 = Children, both sexes 60 4 = Adult Family, Females - 5 = Adult Family, unspecified 14 6 = Adult Family, both sexes 17 7 = Others, Female 1 9 = Others, both sexes 56. PRINCIPAL RELATIONSHIPS, EARLY CHILDHOOD CARETAKERS AND COMPANIONS 45 . = Missing Data 10 1 = Peer Group, single sex 1 2 = Peer Group, unspecified 43 3 = Peer Group, both sexes 22 4 = Older Children, single sex 8 5 = Older Children, unspecified 22 6 = Older Children, both sexes 14 7 = Adults, single sex 21 9 = Adults, both sexes 57. GENERAL INDULGENCE, INFANCY (taking 51 and 52 into account) 67 . = Missing Data 1 1 = Severe or neglectful 8 2 = Lesser severity 19 3 = Occasional indulgence 80 4 = Greater 11 5 = Highly affectionate 58. GENERAL INDULGENCE, INFANCY- MODIFIERS OF GENERAL SCALE TYPES 67 . = Missing Data 36 1 = Low in category 34 2 = Medium in category 49 3 = High in category *Note: Combine 57 and 58 59. GENERAL INDULGENCE, EARLY CHILDHOOD (taking 51 and 52 into account) 54 . = Missing Data 2 1 = Severe 24 2 = Less Severity 32 3 = Occasional Severity 64 4 = Greater Leniency 10 5 = Consistently Lenient 60. GENERAL INDULGENCE, EARLY CHILDHOOD: MODIFIERS OF GENERAL SCALE TYPES 54 . = Missing Data 43 1 = Low in Category 44 2 = Medium in Category 45 3 = High in Category *Note: Combine 59 and 60 to get a fine-scaled variable SETTLEMENT PATTERNS AND COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION George P. Murdock and Suzanne F. Wilson. 1972. Settlement Patterns and Community Organization: Cross Cultural Codes 3. ETHNOLOGY 11: 54-295. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. 61. FIXITY OF SETTLEMENT 28 1 = Migratory 21 2 = Semi-nomadic--fixed then migratory 6 3 = Rotating among 2 or more fixed 14 4 = Semi-sedentary--fixed core, some migratory 15 5 = Impermanent--periodically moved 102 6 = Permanent 63. COMMUNITY SIZE 1 . = Missing Data 28 1 = < 50 28 2 = 50-99 45 3 = 100-199 32 4 = 200-399 29 5 = 400-999 15 6 = 1,000-4,999 5 7 = 5,000-49,999 3 8 = > 50,000 64. POPULATION DENSITY 2 . = Missing Data 36 1 = < 1 person per 5 sq. mile 22 2 = 1 person per 1-5 sq. mile 25 3 = 1-5 persons per sq. mile 27 4 = 1-25 persons per sq. mile 34 5 = 26-100 persons per sq. mile 20 6 = 101-500 persons per sq. mile 20 7 = over 500 persons per sq. mile 69. MARITAL RESIDENCE 1 . = Missing data 38 1 = Matrilocal or uxorilocal - with wife's kin 8 2 = Avunculocal - with husband's mother's brother's kin 118 3 = Patrilocal or virilocal - with husband's kin 12 4 = Ambilocal - with either wife's or husband's kin 9 5 = Neolocal - separate from kin 70. DESCENT - MEMBERSHIP IN CORPORATE KINSHIP GROUPS 26 1 = Matrilineal - through female line 10 2 = Double descent: separate groups through male and female lines 75 3 = Patrilineal - through male line 6 4 = Ambilineal - through one parent in each generation 69 5 = Bilateral - not a corporate kin group 73. COMMUNITY INTEGRATION 6 1 = Lacking or low compared to community segments or larger polity 26 2 = By common residence only 16 3 = Common Identity, dialect, subculture 78 4 = Overlapping Kin ties 8 5 = Common social or economic status 20 6 = Common political ties 32 7 = Common religious ties 74. PROMINENT COMMUNITY CEREMONIALS 67 1 = Rites of passage 69 2 = Calendrical 36 3 = Magical or religious 14 4 = Individual sponsored and communally attended (e.g., potlatch) 75. CEREMONIAL ELEMENTS 54 1 = Feasting and/or drinking 10 2 = Exchanges other than food 51 3 = Entertainment 57 4 = Sacrifice other than human 13 5 = Human sacrifice 1 6 = Masochistic behavior 77. LOCAL POLITICAL SUCCESSION, PRIMARY 3 . = Missing data 17 1 = No headman or council 10 2 = By appointment 10 3 = Seniority 2 4 = Divination 37 5 = Informal consensus 22 6 = Electoral process 61 7 = Patrilineal 14 8 = Matrilineal 10 9 = Hereditary with personal qualifications 79. POLYGAMY (see 68) 2 1 = Polyandry - primarily monogamous with some plural husbands 31 2 = Monogamy 96 3 = Polygyny < 20% plural wives (if more frequent than polyandry) 57 4 = Polygyny > 20% plural wives (if more frequent than polyandry) 80. FAMILY SIZE 7 1 = Nuclear Monogamous 70 2 = Nuclear Polygynous 16 3 = Stem Family 59 4 = Small extended 34 5 = Large extended POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Tuden, Arthur, and Catherine Marshall. 1972. Settlement Patterns and Community Organization: Cross Cultural Codes 3. ETHNOLOGY 11:436-464. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. 83. LEVELS OF SOVEREIGNTY 2 . = Missing data 98 1 = Stateless society 31 2 = Sovereignty 1st hierarchical level up 14 3 = Sovereignty 2nd hierarchical level up 41 4 = Sovereignty 3rd or higher hierarchical level 84. HIGHER POLITICAL ORGANIZATION 3 . = Missing data 85 1 = Absent 28 2 = Peace group 46 3 = Alliances 7 4 = Confederation 17 5 = International organization 88. ADVISORY BODIES 5 . = Missing data 98 1 = Absence of sovereignty 28 2 = Absent 14 3 = Relatives of executive 2 4 = Favorites of executive - 5 = Secret society 13 6 = Subordinate groups 3 7 = Hereditary 23 8 = Subordinate functionaries 89. JUDICIARY 3 . = Missing data 103 1 = Absent 6 2 = Not local 49 3 = Executive 23 4 = Appointed by executive 1 5 = Priesthood 1 6 = Hereditary 90. POLICE 6 . = Missing data 124 1 = Not specialized 4 2 = Incipient specialization 4 3 = Retainers of chiefs 6 4 = Military 42 5 = Specialized 91. ADMINISTRATIVE HIERARCHY 3 . = Missing data 98 1 = Absent 7 2 = Popular Assemblies 8 3 = Heads of kin groups 38 4 = Heads of decentralized territorial divisions 31 5 = Heads of centralized territorial divisions 1 6 = Part of centralized system 93. POLITICAL POWER- MOST IMPORTANT SOURCE 3 . = Missing data 90 0 = Direct subsistence production 11 1 = Warfare wealth 3 2 = Tribute or taxes 13 3 = Slaves 20 4 = Contributions of free citizens 12 5 = Large land-holdings 14 6 = Political office 6 7 = Foreign Commerce 11 8 = Capitalistic enterprises 3 9 = Priestly services DIVISION OF LABOR Murdock, George P., and Caterina Provost. 1973. Factors in the Division of Labor by Sex: A Cross-Cultural Analysis. ETHNOLOGY 12:203-225. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. FOOD COLLECTION 99. VEGETAL 100. EGGS, INSECTS, AND/OR SMALL LAND FAUNA 101. SHELLFISH/SMALL AQUATIC FAUNA 102. HONEY 103. FOWLING 104. FISHING 105. TRAPPING 106. LARGE LAND FAUNA 107. LARGE AQUATIC FAUNA Number of Cases for Each Variable: 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 . = Task Present, sex ? 34 48 22 20 2 10 1 0 2 -1 = No data on task 7 53 24 80 29 4 15 6 9 0 = Task absent 10 18 85 38 16 29 20 36 129 1 = Males exclusively 6 27 11 39 131 83 136 139 48 2 = Males predominantly 4 3 4 5 5 45 12 5 0 3 = Equally 18 9 1 2 3 8 1 0 0 4 = Females predominant 42 13 12 0 0 5 1 0 0 5 = Females exclusively 65 15 27 2 0 2 0 0 0 FOOD PRODUCTION 108. LAND CLEARANCE 109. SOIL PREPARATION 110. PLANTING 111. CROP TENDING 112. HARVESTING 113. SMALL DOMESTIC ANIMALS 114. LARGE DOMESTIC ANIMALS 115. MILKING Number of Cases for Each Variable: 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 . = Task Present, sex ? 1 1 0 3 0 70 10 10 -1 = No data on task 2 2 1 4 1 6 2 1 0 = Task absent 44 49 44 48 44 13 76 127 1 = Males exclusively 95 66 27 22 10 19 54 15 2 = Males predominantly 34 27 35 23 37 8 24 2 3 = Equally 6 14 33 24 34 14 14 8 4 = Females predominantly 3 17 26 30 34 12 3 2 5 = Females exclusively 1 10 20 32 26 44 3 21 FOOD PREPARATION 116. VEGETAL 117. BUTCHERING 118. PRESERVATION 119. DRINKS 120. DAIRY 121. COOKING Number of Cases for Each Variable: 116 117 118 119 120 121 . = Task Present, sex ? 2 16 64 42 20 1 -1 = No data on task 8 19 25 16 8 1 0 = Task absent 2 8 31 37 130 0 1 = Males exclusively 3 122 18 15 4 0 2 = Males predominantly 1 9 2 3 0 2 3 = Equally 4 4 3 4 0 2 4 = Females predominantly 21 4 3 4 0 63 5 = Females exclusively 145 4 40 65 24 117 EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES 122. MINING/QUARRYING 123. FUEL GATHERING 124. LUMBERING 125. WATER FETCHING Number of Cases for Each Variable: 122 123 124 125 . = Task Present, sex ? 6 11 16 25 -1 = No data on task 39 7 17 1 0 = Task absent 106 1 14 0 1 = Males exclusively 31 25 135 4 2 = Males predominantly 1 12 4 4 3 = Equally 2 12 0 8 4 = Females predominantly 0 24 0 13 5 = Females exclusively 1 94 0 131 INTERMEDIATE PROCESSING 126. SKINS 127. SPINNING 128. LOOM WEAVING 129. SMELTING Number of Cases for Each Variable: 126 127 128 129 . = Task Present, sex ? 44 9 1 0 -1 = No data on task 13 30 16 24 0 = Task absent 48 56 81 125 1 = Males exclusively 39 7 24 37 2 = Males predominantly 4 3 0 0 3 = Equally 2 4 6 0 4 = Females predominantly 5 5 8 0 5 = Females exclusively 31 72 50 0 MANUFACTURING 130. MAT-MAKING 131. NET-MAKING 132. BASKET-MAKING 133. ROPE OR CORDAGE 134. LEATHER 135. CLOTHING Number of Cases for Each Variable: 130 131 132 133 134 135 . = Task Present, sex ? 31 45 19 56 32 5 -1 = No data on task 23 31 16 16 23 23 0 = Task absent 29 45 21 3 57 36 1 = Males exclusively 30 42 37 62 35 16 2 = Males predominantly 4 2 9 7 3 4 3 = Equally 9 5 15 18 2 11 4 = Females predominantly 5 1 18 5 5 13 5 = Females exclusively 55 15 51 19 29 78 MANUFACTURING (Cont.) 136. POTTERY 137. WOOD 138. BONE 139. STONE 140. METAL 141. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS Number of Cases for Each Variable: 136 137 138 139 140 141 . = Task Present, sex ? 6 17 44 31 0 74 -1 = No data on task 14 4 46 43 7 16 0 = Task absent 61 1 14 39 93 8 1 = Males exclusively 14 159 71 67 85 83 2 = Males predominantly 5 3 7 0 1 3 3 = Equally 6 1 2 6 0 1 4 = Females predominantly 6 1 0 0 0 0 5 = Females exclusively 74 0 2 0 0 1 MISCELLANEOUS 142. FIRE 143. LAUNDERING 144. BODILY MUTILATION 145. BONE-SETTING/SURGERY 146. BURDEN CARRYING 147. BOAT-BUILDING 148. HOUSE-BUILDING Number of Cases for Each Variable: 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 . = Task Present, sex ? 96 9 45 17 6 5 6 -1 = No data on task 1 59 22 88 31 11 1 0 = Task absent 3 52 13 37 3 79 1 1 = Males exclusively 40 5 36 34 18 84 105 2 = Males predominantly 6 0 4 6 12 3 30 3 = Equally 16 4 48 4 46 3 14 4 = Females predominant 4 8 6 0 34 0 9 5 = Females exclusively 20 49 12 0 36 1 20 CULTURAL COMPLEXITY Murdock, George P., and Caterina Provost. 1971. Measurement of Cultural Complexity. ETHNOLOGY 12:379-392. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. 149. SCALE 1: WRITING AND RECORDS 73 1 = None 49 2 = Mnemonic devices 21 3 = Non-written records 12 4 = True writing; no records 31 5 = True writing; records 150. SCALE 2: FIXITY OF RESIDENCE 28 1 = Nomadic 21 2 = Semi-nomadic 20 3 = Semi-sedentary 15 4 = Sedentary; impermanent 102 5 = Sedentary 151. SCALE 3: AGRICULTURE 38 1 = None 17 2 = 10% food supply 11 3 = 10%; secondary 63 4 = Primary; not intensive 57 5 = Primary; intensive 152. SCALE 4: URBANIZATION 56 1 = fewer than 100 persons 43 2 = 100-199 persons 33 3 = 200-399 persons 30 4 = 400-999 persons 24 5 = 1000 persons 153. SCALE 5: TECHNOLOGICAL SPECIALIZATION 39 1 = No pottery, looms, metalworking 27 2 = Pottery only 31 3 = Loom weaving but not metalworking 56 4 = Metalworking, weavers or potters absent 33 5 = Smiths, weavers, potters 154. SCALE 6: LAND TRANSPORT 108 1 = Human only 42 2 = Pack animals 14 3 = Draft animals 11 4 = Animal-drawn vehicles 11 5 = Automotive vehicles 155. SCALE 7: MONEY 77 1 = None 14 2 = Domestically usable articles 43 3 = Alien currency 27 4 = Elementary forms 25 5 = True money 156. SCALE 8: DENSITY OF POPULATION 58 1 = less than 1 person/square mile 25 2 = 1-5 persons/square mile 28 3 = 5.1-25 persons/square mile 35 4 = 26-100 persons/square mile 40 5 = 100 persons/square mile 157. SCALE 9: POLITICAL INTEGRATION 11 1 = None 72 2 = Autonomous local communities 46 3 = 1 level above community 28 4 = 2 levels above community 29 5 = 3 levels above community 158. SCALE 10: SOCIAL STRATIFICATION 65 1 = Egalitarian 52 2 = Hereditary slavery 19 3 = 2 social classes, no castes/slavery 20 4 = 2 social classes, castes/slavery 30 5 = 3 social classes or castes, with or without slavery SEXUAL ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES Broude, Gwen, and Sarah J. Greene. 1976. Cross-Cultural Codes on Twenty Sexual Attitudes and Practices. ETHNOLOGY 15:409-429. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. 165. PREMARITAL SEX ATTITUDES- FEMALE 56 . = Missing data 30 1 = Expected 28 2 = Tolerated 22 3 = Mildly disapproved 11 4 = Moderately disapproved 4 5 = Disallowed 35 6 = Strongly disapproved 166. FREQUENCY OF PREMARITAL SEX- MALE 84 . = Missing data 60 1 = Universal 18 2 = Moderate 11 3 = Occasional 13 4 = Uncommon 167. FREQUENCY OF PREMARITAL SEX- FEMALE 77 . = Missing data 51 1 = Universal 19 2 = Moderate 16 3 = Occasional 23 4 = Uncommon 169. EXTRAMARITAL SEX 77 . = Missing data 13 1 = Single standard- both allowed 48 2 = Double standard- husband only 24 3 = Double standard- both forbidden, women punished more 24 4 = Single standard- both condemned equally 172. WIFE-SHARING 83 . = Missing data 4 1 = For any reason 11 2 = Vis-à-vis specific group men 5 3 = Vis-à-vis specific man 7 4 = Occasionally for sex gratification 3 5 = For husband's economic benefit 11 6 = Aside from sex gratification 62 7 = None CLIMATE DATA FROM WEATHER STATIONS Whiting, John W. M. (New Codes: Not Previously Published) These codes are taken from Climate maps, for weather stations closest to the time and place of each societal focus. 186. MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE (EC) 99 = Missing data -16 = Min 29 = Max 187. HOTTEST MONTH MEAN TEMPERATURE (EC) 99 = Missing data 3 = Min 46 = Max 188. COLDEST MONTH MEAN TEMPERATURE (EC) 99 = Missing data -28 = Min 44 = Max 189. MEAN ANNUAL PRECIPITATION (mm) 99 = Missing data 0 = Min 4819 = Max 192. HIGHEST PRECIPITATION IN WETTEST MONTH (mm) 99 = Missing data 0 = Min 670 = Max 193. LOWEST PRECIPITATION IN DRIEST MONTH (mm) 99 = Missing data 0 = Min 295 = Max 196. NUMBER OF DRY MONTHS 99 = Missing data 76 0 = None 8 1 = 13 2 = 10 3 = 19 4 = 13 5 = 15 6 = 10 7 = 8 8 = 1 9 = 3 10 = 1 11 = 9 12 = 199. NUMBER OF FROST MONTHS 99 = Missing data 158 0 = None 1 1 = - 2 = - 3 = - 4 = 1 5 = 1 6 = 7 7 = 3 8 = 6 9 = 2 10 = 5 11 = 2 12 = ETHNOGRAPHIC ATLAS PART 1 Murdock, George P. 1962-1971. Serial Installments in ETHNOLOGY. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. 200. REGION 28 1 = Africa Exclusive of Madagascar and the Sahara 28 2 = Circum-Mediterranean North Africa, Europe, Turkey, Caucasus, Semitic Near East 34 3 = East Eurasia including Madagascar and Islands in Indian Ocean 31 4 = Insular Pacific including Australia, Indonesia, Formosa, Philippines 33 5 = North America indigenous societies to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec 32 6 = South America including Antilles, Yucatan, Central America 208. MODE OF MARRIAGE 0 99 = Missing data 71 1 = Bride-Price or -Wealth, to bride's family 24 2 = Bride-Service, to bride's family 16 3 = Token Bride-price 15 4 = Gift Exchange, reciprocal 9 5 = Sister or Female Relative Exchanged for Bride 42 6 = Absence of Consideration 9 7 = Dowry, to bride from her family 146 9 = No Alternative 221. LARGEST PATRILINEAL KIN GROUP 223. LARGEST MATRILINEAL KIN GROUP Patrilineal Matrilineal Lrgst Exog. Lrgst Exog. . = Missing Data 1 1 1 = None 104 144 2 = Exogamous Group 0 3 3 = Lineages in a Single Community 18 7 4 = Sibs (Lineages in Mult.i Communities) 42 15 5 = Phratries (Maximally Extended Sibs) 15 5 6 = Moieties 6 11 225. COGNATIC KIN GROUPS 1 99 = Missing Data 48 1 = Bilateral descent 27 2 = Kindreds: ego-oriented bilateral kin-groups 0 3 = Ambilineal descent: lacking true ramages 7 4 = Ramages: ancestor oriented ambilineal groups 2 5 = Exogamous ramages 4 6 = Quasi-lineages: filiation based, not descent 97 9 = Unilineal descent groups 238. HIGH GODS: Defined as a spiritual being who is believed to have created all reality and/or to be its ultimate governor, even though his/her sole act was to create other spirits who, in turn, created or control the natural world. 18 . = Missing data 68 1 = Absent or not reported 47 2 = Present but not active in human affairs 13 3 = Present and active in human affairs but not supportive of human morality 40 4 = Present, active, and specifically supportive of human morality 239. GAMES: The code below can also be expressed in a semi-order or partial Guttman scale, as there are five latent classes or dominant scale types: for P C S, these are - - - + - - + + - + - + + + + 14 . = Missing data 12 1 = None of the three types 64 2 = Physical skill 1 3 = Chance 4 4 = Strategy 47 5 = Skill and chance 22 6 = Skill and strategy 0 7 = Chance and strategy 22 8 = All 241. MALE GENITAL MUTILATIONS 5 . = Missing data 131 0 = Absent 5 1 = Within first two months after birth 1 2 = Two months to two years 5 3 = Two to five years 16 4 = Six to ten years 17 5 = 11 to 15 years 2 6 = 16 to 25 years 0 7 = 25 to 50 years 1 8 = After 50 years 3 9 = Normal age unclear 242. SEGREGATION OF ADOLESCENT BOYS 29 . = Missing data 108 1 = Absence 19 2 = Partial 8 3 = Complete, with relatives outside nuclear family 4 4 = Complete, with non-relatives 18 5 = Complete, with peers RULE OR PRACTICE FOR INHERITANCE 278. INHERITANCE OF REAL PROPERTY (LAND) 279. INHERITANCE OF MOVABLE PROPERTY 278 279 Land Movables . = Missing data 31 34 1 = Absence of individual property rights or rules 59 21 2 = Matrilineal (sister's sons) 4 5 3 = Other matrilineal heirs (e.g., younger brothers) 9 9 4 = Children, with daughters receiving less 12 14 5 = Children, equally for both sexes 9 22 6 = Other patrilineal heirs (e.g., younger brothers) 8 9 7 = Patrilineal (sons) 54 72 DISTRIBUTION OF INHERITANCE AMONG INDIVIDUALS OF SAME CATEGORY 280. INHERITANCE OF REAL PROPERTY 281. INHERITANCE OF MOVABLE PROPERTY 280 281 Land Movables 99 = Missing data or absence of rights 91 55 1 = Equal or relatively equal 54 86 2 = Exclusively or predominantly to the one adjudged best qualified 6 6 3 = Ultimogeniture (to the junior individual) 4 5 4 = Primogeniture (to the senior individual) 28 27 9 = Missing data Note: Change 9 to 99 3 7 285. PREVAILING TYPE OF DWELLING: WALL MATERIAL 65 . = Missing data 12 1 = Stone, stucco, concrete, or fired brick 19 2 = Plaster, mud and dung, or wattle and daub 33 3 = Wood, including logs, planks, poles, bamboo, or shingles 1 4 = Bark 1 5 = Hides or skin 6 6 = Felt, cloth, or other fabrics 17 7 = Mats, latticework, or wattle 14 8 = Grass, leaves, or other thatch 17 9 = Adobe, clay, or dried brick 0 10)= Open walls, including temporary screens *)= Walls indistinguishable from roof * Note: disaggregate 9 and 10 287. PREVAILING TYPE OF DWELLING: ROOFING MATERIALS 10 . = Missing data 2 1 = Stone or slate, or tile or fired brick 3 2 = Plaster, clay, mud and dung, or wattle and daub 10 3 = Wood, including logs, planks, poles, bamboo, or shingles 6 4 = Bark 5 5 = Hides or skin 5 6 = Felt, cloth, or other fabric 9 7 = Mats 118 8 = Grass, leaves, brush, or other thatch 18 9 = Earth or turf 10)= Ice or snow (combined with 9) * Note: disaggregate 9 and 10 TRAITS INCULCATED IN CHILDHOOD Barry, Herbert,III, Lili Josephson, Edith Lauer, and Catherine Marshall. 1976. Traits Inculcated in Childhood: Cross-Cultural Codes 5. ETHNOLOGY 15:83-114. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. 294. Fortitude: Early Boy 295. Fortitude: Early Girl 296. Fortitude: Late Boy 297. Fortitude: Late Girl Early Late Boy Girl Boy Girl . = Missing data 46 55 31 41 0 = no inculcation, or opposite trait 0 0 0 0 1 = 0 1 0 0 2 = 17 19 3 5 3 = 16 17 5 11 4 = 11 13 11 9 5 = moderately strong inculcation 61 60 40 50 6 = 24 15 49 44 7 = 3 1 14 12 8 = 6 3 24 12 9 = 2 2 8 12 extremely strong inculcation 0 0 1 0 298. Aggression: Early Boy 299. Aggression: Early Girl 300. Aggression: Late Boy 301. Aggression: Late Girl Early Late Boy Girl Boy Girl . = Missing data 53 68 38 58 0 = no inculcation, or opposite trait 0 0 0 0 1 = 6 7 4 5 2 = 25 30 9 16 3 = 14 15 11 16 4 = 7 10 9 10 5 = moderately strong inculcation 40 30 40 38 6 = 28 17 43 26 7 = 1 2 5 5 8 = 8 5 19 10 9 = 3 1 6 1 extremely strong inculcation 1 1 2 1 302. Competitiveness: Early Boy 303. Competitiveness: Early Girl 304. Competitiveness: Late Boy 305. Competitiveness: Late Girl Early Late Boy Girl Boy Girl . = Missing data 75 80 51 60 0 = no inculcation, or opposite trait 6 6 5 5 1 = 0 0 0 0 2 = 21 21 15 17 3 = 15 15 18 16 4 = 9 9 9 10 5 = moderately strong inculcation 38 35 42 44 6 = 18 18 30 25 7 = 2 1 2 1 8 = 0 0 11 7 9 = strong inculcation 2 1 3 1 306. Self-reliance: Early Boy 307. Self-reliance: Early Girl 308. Self-reliance: Late Boy 309. Self-reliance: Late Girl Early Late Boy Girl Boy Girl . = Missing data 31 33 26 33 0 = no inculcation, or opposite trait 1 2 1 1 1 = 7 8 4 5 2 = 39 48 6 10 3 = 27 29 5 15 4 = 9 11 5 10 5 = moderately strong inculcation 42 35 34 48 6 = 16 12 39 34 7 = 2 4 6 6 8 = 10 4 48 19 9 = 2 0 11 4 * extremely strong inculcation [10:] 0 0 1 1 310. Achievement: Early Boy 311. Achievement: Early Girl 312. Achievement: Late Boy 313. Achievement: Late Girl Early Late Boy Girl Boy Girl . = Missing data 40 50 24 33 0 = no inculcation or opposite trait 1 1 0 0 1 = 3 2 1 2 2 = 49 49 14 7 3 = 23 24 16 16 4 = 4 4 8 8 5 = moderately strong inculcation 44 36 46 51 6 = 17 17 47 45 7 = 1 1 3 4 8 = 3 2 22 18 9 = strong inculcation 1 0 5 2 314. Industry: Early Boy 315. Industry: Early Girl 316. Industry: Late Boy 317. Industry: Late Girl Early Late Boy Girl Boy Girl . = Missing data 20 21 11 11 0 = no inculcation or opposite trait 4 3 0 0 1 = 10 3 1 0 2 = 83 62 10 4 3 = 28 35 17 11 4 = 14 13 16 6 5 = moderately strong inculcation 20 35 69 41 6 = 6 14 37 63 7 = 0 0 3 8 8 = 1 0 19 38 9 = strong inculcation 0 0 3 4 318. Responsibility: Early Boy 319. Responsibility: Early Girl 320. Responsibility: Late Boy 321. Responsibility: Late Girl Early Late Boy Girl Boy Girl . = Missing data 35 36 25 28 0 = no inculcation or opposite trait 11 4 3 0 1 = 8 5 0 0 2 = 73 63 15 3 3 = 23 32 20 11 4 = 6 5 15 12 5 = moderately strong inculcation 21 33 49 50 6 = 8 7 37 51 7 = 0 0 2 3 8 = 1 1 19 28 9 = strong inculcation 0 0 1 0 322. Obedience: Early Boy 323. Obedience: Early Girl 324. Obedience: Late Boy 325. Obedience: Late Girl Early Late Boy Girl Boy Girl . = Missing data 26 25 24 24 0 = no inculcation or opposite trait 2 - 1 - 1 = 3 3 1 - 2 = 27 23 15 10 3 = 11 13 10 10 4 = 14 11 12 11 5 = moderately strong inculcation 45 44 45 45 6 = 27 31 33 36 7 = 2 2 2 3 8 = 22 25 32 32 9 = 4 5 8 11 extremely strong inculcation [10:] 3 4 3 4 326. Self-restraint: Early Boy 327. Self-restraint: Early Girl 328. Self-restraint: Late Boy 329. Self-restraint: Late Girl Early Late Boy Girl Boy Girl . = Missing data 52 53 51 54 0 = no inculcation or opposite trait 0 0 0 0 1 = 6 7 1 1 2 = 38 32 19 16 3 = 35 31 19 16 4 = 5 7 12 11 5 = moderately strong inculcation 29 34 35 45 6 = 13 14 26 26 7 = 0 0 2 1 8 = 8 7 20 13 9 = strong inculcation 0 1 1 3 330. Sexual restraint: Early Boy 331. Sexual restraint: Early Girl 332. Sexual restraint: Late Boy 333. Sexual restraint: Late Girl Early Late Boy Girl Boy Girl . = Missing data 30 32 22 21 0 = no inculcation or opposite trait 1 1 0 0 1 = 14 11 7 4 2 = 67 57 41 32 3 = 22 19 7 18 4 = 14 14 25 25 5 = moderately strong inculcation 30 32 41 24 6 = 7 14 15 27 7 = 0 1 2 6 8 = 1 5 6 18 9 = 0 0 0 5 extremely strong inculcation [10:] 0 0 0 6 334. Generosity 82 . = Missing data 0 0 = no inculcation or opposite trait 1 1 = 4 2 = 6 3 = 4 4 = 24 5 = moderately strong inculcation 31 6 = 2 7 = 27 8 = 4 9 = 1 extremely strong inculcation 335. Trust 48 . = Missing data 1 0 = no inculcation or opposite trait 6 1 = 19 2 = 5 3 = 15 4 = 34 5 = moderately strong inculcation 18 6 = 11 7 = 25 8 = 3 9 = 1 extremely strong inculcation [10:] 336. Honesty 76 . = Missing data 1 0 = no inculcation or opposite trait 5 1 = 18 2 = 15 3 = 12 4 = 28 5 = moderately strong inculcation 16 6 = 5 7 = 8 8 = 1 9 = 1 extremely strong inculcation [10:] AGENTS AND TECHNIQUES OF CHILD TRAINING Barry, Herbert, III, Lili Josephson, Edith Lauer, and Catherine Marshall. 1977. Agents and Techniques for Child Training: Cross-Cultural Codes 6. ETHNOLOGY 16:191-230. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. 353. Sex of Parents in Residence: Early Boy 354. Sex of Parents in Residence: Early Girl 355. Sex of Parents in Residence: Late Boy 356. Sex of Parents in Residence: Late Girl Early Late Boys Girls Boys Girls 99 = Missing data 4 4 28 18 1 = Male exclusively 0 0 9 0 2 = Male predominantly 2 1 1 1 3 = Both sexes equally 135 135 124 127 4 = Female predominantly 22 21 13 16 5 = Female exclusively 23 25 11 24 385. Sex of Parental Authority Figures: Early Boy 386. Sex of Parental Authority Figures: Early Girl 387. Sex of Parental Authority Figures: Late Boy 388. Sex of Parental Authority Figures: Late Girl Early Late Boys Girls Boys Girls 99 = Missing data 14 13 39 26 1 = Male exclusively 36 17 43 17 2 = Male predominantly 66 58 53 50 3 = Both sexes equally 55 59 43 52 4 = Female predominantly 8 20 3 20 5 = Female exclusively 7 19 5 21 389. Sex of Principal Non-Parental Authority Figures: Early Boy 390. Sex of Principal Non-Parental Authority Figures: Early Girl 391. Sex of Principal Non-Parental Authority Figures: Late Boy 392. Sex of Principal Non-Parental Authority Figures: Late Girl Early Late Boys Girls Boys Girls 99 = Missing data 73 78 65 112 1 = Male exclusively 66 48 80 36 2 = Male predominantly 4 5 6 5 3 = Both sexes equally 37 35 29 14 4 = Female predominantly 2 2 2 4 5 = Female exclusively 4 18 4 15 417. Sex of Parental Educators: Early Boys 418. Sex of Parental Educators: Early Girls 419. Sex of Parental Educators: Late Boys 420. Sex of Parental Educators: Late Girls Early Late Boys Girls Boys Girls 99 = Missing data 23 16 31 26 1 = Male exclusively 58 4 117 3 2 = Male predominantly 27 2 18 1 3 = Both sexes equally 51 40 14 11 4 = Female predominantly 17 20 3 12 5 = Female exclusively 10 104 3 133 429. Use of Example: Early Boys 430. Use of Example: Early Girls 431. Use of Example: Late Boys 432. Use of Example: Late Girls Early Late Boys Girls Boys Girls 99 = Missing data 34 33 33 31 2 = Children's activities differ from adults are not expected to behave like them 0 0 0 0 3 = 0 0 0 0 4 = 0 0 0 0 5 = Children are expected to do things more or less by example 25 24 20 20 6 = 22 23 23 23 7 = 2 2 2 8 = Children frequently shown example; considered very important in socializing child 79 79 83 84 9 = 21 22 22 23 Example given as most important method of education, or adults are constantly showing children how to do things. 3 3 3 3 441. Teasing: Early Boys 442. Teasing: Early Girls 443. Teasing: Late Boys 444. Teasing: Late Girls Shaming and exposure to ridicule for misconduct: Early Late Boys Girls Boys Girls 99 = Missing data 85 85 73 74 2 = Teasing absent 9 8 5 5 3 = 8 10 8 9 4 = 4 4 4 4 5 = 34 33 39 38 6 = 24 23 31 30 7 = 2 2 2 2 8 = 19 20 23 23 9 = Teasing prevalent 1 1 1 1 445. Scolding: Early Boys 446. Scolding: Early Girls 447. Scolding: Late Boys 448. Scolding: Late Girls Includes verbal reprimands, nagging, scolding for misbehavior: Early Late Boys Girls Boys Girls 99 = Missing data 76 74 71 69 0 = Scolding absent 2 2 2 1 1 = 3 2 1 1 2 = 11 13 8 9 3 = 8 7 8 7 4 = 9 9 11 11 5 = 54 54 51 51 6 = 15 16 19 21 7 = 1 1 0 0 8 = 7 8 13 14 9 = Harsh scolding 0 0 1 1 [10:] 0 0 1 1 449. Warning: Early Boys 450. Warning: Early Girls 451. Warning: Late Boys 452. Warning: Late Girls Threats of punishment by supernatural beings or strangers. Early Late Boys Girls Boys Girls 99 = Missing data 87 87 86 87 0 = Warnings absent 1 1 1 0 1 = 0 0 1 1 2 = 4 4 5 5 3 = 3 3 4 4 4 = 4 4 4 4 5 = 29 29 32 32 6 = 38 38 36 36 7 = 1 1 1 1 8 = 14 14 11 11 9 = Warnings prevalent 5 5 5 5 453. Corporal Punishment: Early Boys 454. Corporal Punishment: Early Girls 455. Corporal Punishment: Late Boys 456. Corporal Punishment: Late Girls Whipping and any other pain-inflicting treatment. Early Late Boys Girls Boys Girls 99 = Missing data 41 46 39 46 0 = Punishment absent 9 9 10 8 1 = 6 6 4 4 2 = 35 35 29 30 3 = 17 18 15 15 4 = 12 12 8 9 5 = 39 37 41 39 6 = 20 16 17 16 7 = 0 0 1 1 8 = 3 3 18 16 9 = Harsh Punishment 3 1 3 1 457. Ceremonies for Children: Early Boys 458. Ceremonies for Children: Early Girls 459. Ceremonies for Children: Late Boys 460. Ceremonies for Children: Late Girls Included are those for first animal killed or first basket woven by young child, or ceremonies like birthday parties or children's days. Inclusion of children in cultural ceremonies justifies only moderate s cores. Early Late Boys Girls Boys Girls 99 = Missing data 54 62 40 55 0 = Ceremonies absent 3 4 1 0 1 = 1 5 0 2 2 = 48 47 20 32 3 = 20 22 18 25 4 = 6 5 5 9 5 = 38 26 61 42 6 = 13 11 32 13 7 = 0 0 1 0 8 = Ceremonies Prevalent 3 4 8 8 461. Gifts for Approved Behaviors: Early Boys 462. Gifts for Approved Behaviors: Early Girls 463. Gifts for Approved Behaviors: Late Boys 464. Gifts for Approved Behaviors: Late Girls Early Late Boys Girls Boys Girls 99 = Missing data 45 50 41 43 2 = No material rewards for appr. behavior 24 20 17 17 3 = 18 22 19 23 4 = 8 8 8 8 5 = 65 61 72 66 6 = 22 19 23 21 7 = 0 0 0 0 8 = Material rewards for approved behaviors, 4 6 6 8 e.g., gifts or conferring of privileges. 465. Permissiveness: Early Boys 466. Permissiveness: Early Girls 467. Permissiveness: Late Boys 468. Permissiveness: Late Girls Early Late Boys Girls Boys Girls 99 = Missing data 17 19 18 18 0 = Harsh socialization by parents or other 1 1 1 1 authority figures with severe punishment 1 = 1 1 5 7 2 = Generally harsh treatment, not extreme 4 7 6 8 3 = 9 7 10 13 4 = 12 17 23 31 5 = Generally moderate or balanced degree 31 37 52 61 of both harshness and permissiveness 6 = 37 41 32 22 7 = 31 29 14 9 8 = Generally indulgent, not extreme 28 19 15 12 9 = 10 6 10 4 Generally lenient and indulgent permissiveness, minimal punishment or expression of disapproval [10:] 5 2 2 1 469. Affection: Early Boys 470. Affection: Early Girls 471. Affection: Late Boys 472. Affection: Late Girls Attention and positive interest expressed toward child. Early Late Boys Girls Boys Girls 99 = Missing data 31 31 32 32 0 = Minimal expression of affection, 0 0 0 0 attention, positive interest in child 1 = 0 1 0 1 2 = Generally low expression of affection 6 9 10 13 and attention 3 = 3 3 4 4 4 = 16 19 20 24 5 = Moderate or sporadic expression of 40 35 43 37 affection and attention 6 = 43 41 44 42 7 = 19 21 17 19 8 = Consistent, occasional strong expression 24 22 16 14 9 = 4 4 0 0 473. Evaluation by Society: Early Boys 474. Evaluation by Society: Early Girls 475. Evaluation by Society: Late Boys 476. Evaluation by Society: Late Girls Degree to which children are desired and valued: Early Late Boys Girls Boys Girls 99 = Missing data 14 14 14 14 0 = Children are viewed indifferently or 0 0 0 0 as a liability by society and local community 1 = 0 1 0 1 2 = Only slight, sporadic expression of 2 7 2 6 valuation of children 3 = 3 9 3 9 4 = 11 23 9 21 5 = Moderate or occasionally strong 39 30 39 35 expression of value of children 6 = 46 50 48 49 7 = 32 25 32 26 8 = Strong, but no extreme valuation 26 18 27 17 of children 9 = 13 9 12 8 Intense, repeated expression of cultural valuation for children[10:] 1 0 1 0 ADOLESCENT INITIATION CEREMONIES Schlegel, Alice, and Herbert Barry, III. 1979. Adolescent Initiation Ceremonies: A Cross-Cultural Code. ETHNOLOGY 18:199-210. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. 529. Occurrence: Boys 530. Occurrence: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent for both boys and girls 80 81 1 = Absent for specified sex only 39 17 2 = Present 63 85 531. Time: Boys 532. Time: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent 120 100 2 = before genital maturation 13 9 3 = at first signs of genital maturation 18 11 4 = at genital maturation 6 57 5 = within one year after genital 7 5 maturation 6 = later (up to 18 years) 8 1 533. Number of Concurrent Initiates: Boys 534. Number of Concurrent Initiates: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent 119 99 2 = Single 29 73 3 = Small group 7 6 4 = Large group 27 5 535. Duration of Ceremony: Boys 536. Duration of Ceremony: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent 119 99 2 = Short 28 36 3 = Medium 7 21 4 = Long 28 27 537. Number of Participants: Boys 538. Number of Participants: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent 121 99 2 = Immediate family 7 40 3 = Local group 25 29 4 = Large group 29 15 539. Sexes of Participants: Boys 540. Sexes of Participants: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent 119 99 2 = Both sexes 12 11 3 = Partially limited to same 17 28 sex as initiates 4 = Exclusively same sex as initiates 34 45 541. Primary Physical Components: Boys 542. Primary Physical Components: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent 119 99 2 = None 6 11 3 = Manipulations or activities 17 45 4 = Pain other than genital operation 20 21 5 = Genital operation 13 7 6 = Genital operation and other pain 7 0 543. Secondary Physical Components: Boys 544. Secondary Physical Components: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent 119 99 2 = Neither manipulations nor activities 15 20 3 = Activities 14 10 4 = Manipulation 9 26 5 = Both manipulations and activities 25 28 545. Primary Cognitive or Performance Components: Boys 546. Primary Cognitive or Performance Components: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent 119 99 2 = Symbolic only 20 15 3 = Learning skills, sharing secrets, 3 3 or other 4 = Observing taboos 8 1 5 = Seclusion 7 9 6 = Both seclusion and observing taboos 18 54 7 = Fear 7 2 547. Secondary Cognitive or Performance Components: Boys 548. Secondary Cognitive or Performance Components: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent 118 100 2 = Neither learning skills nor sharing 43 60 secrets 3 = Sharing secrets 8 2 4 = Learning skills 4 11 5 = Both learning skills and sharing 9 10 secrets 549. Primary Emic Interpretations: Boys 550. Primary Emic Interpretations: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent 119 99 2 = None 4 5 3 = Status marker, physical change, or 41 75 behavior change 4 = Spiritual change 11 2 5 = Death-rebirth 7 2 551. Secondary Emic Interpretations: Boys 552. Secondary Emic Interpretations: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent 118 100 2 = No status marker 8 8 3 = General status marker 17 25 4 = Status marker for adolescence 14 12 or youth 5 = Status marker for full adulthood 25 38 553. Tertiary Emic Interpretations: Boys 554. Tertiary Emic Interpretations: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent 118 100 2 = Neither physical nor behavior change 31 48 3 = Behavior change 10 12 4 = Physical change 12 16 5 = Both physical and behavior change 11 7 555. Primary Social Consequences: Boys 556. Primary Social Consequences: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent 118 100 2 = None 19 32 3 = Familial integration, familial 14 20 independence, or other 4 = Heterosexual intercourse 8 25 5 = Same-sex bonding 17 3 6 = Both same-sex bonding and 6 3 heterosexual intercourse 557. Secondary Social Consequences: Boys 558. Secondary Social Consequences: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent 118 100 2 = None 36 57 3 = Other 6 8 4 = Familial independence 13 9 5 = Familial integration 9 9 559. Principal Focus: Boys 560. Principal Focus: Girls Boys Girls . = Missing data 4 3 0 = Absent 120 111 2 = Fertility 11 34 3 = Sexuality 10 18 4 = Valor 6 1 5 = Wisdom 7 1 6 = Responsibility 26 23 7 = Other 2 7 REPRODUCTIVE RITUALS Paige, Karen Paige and Jeffrey Paige. 1981. THE POLITICS OF REPRODUCTIVE RITUALS. University of California Press. These data are reprinted with permission of the author and the publisher. (c) University of California Press. Paige and Paige (1981: 67-69) took every even society from the standard sample, substituting adjacent societies if the ethnographic materials were more abundant (1 for ?, 3 for 4, 13 for ?, 19 for 20, 23 for 24, 29 for 30, 31 for 32, 41 for 40?, 53 for 54, 57 for ?, 65 for 66, 69 for ?, 79 for 80, 81 for 82, 85 for 86, 89 for 90, 91 for 92, 97 for ?, 111 for 112, 105 for ?, 121 for 120?, 123 for 122?, 127 for 128, 129 for ?, 133 for 132?, 137 for ?, 1 41 for 142, 145 for 146, 151 for 152, 157 for ?, 159 for 160, 161 for ?, 165 for ?, 169 for 168?, 173 for ?, 177 for 178). They added substitutes from their pretest, some of which substituted for even numbered standard sample societies: Lamba, Chenchu for 60 Gond, Baiga for 62 Santal, Tungus, Murngin for 88 Tobelorese?, Kiwai, Wogeo, Ifaluk, Kurtatchi, Ontong Javanese, Lau for 1 02 Mbau Fijians, Kwakiutl, Hupa for 134 Yurok, Sanpoil for 150 Havasupai, Navaho, Tarasco, Witoto. It is not clear who were substitutes for the 78 Nicobar and 144 Huron. They eliminated peasants (38 Bogo, 50 Basques, 76 Thai, 116 Koreans, 154 Popoluca, 172 Aymara), and large states (such as the 54 Russians, 56 Armenians, 66 Mongols, 82 Negri Sembilan, 114 Chinese, 146 Natchez, and 160 Haitians). This left 91 societies coded for the standard sample. Their final sample of 108, after eliminating six peasant societies, includes 17 coded substitutes not in the standard sample: the latter are not included here with the standard sample codes. 561. Menarcheal Ceremonies 99 99 = Missing data 44 1 = Absent if onset of menstruation not marked by special public ritual 43 2 = Present if onset of menstruation associated with either elaborate or limited rites 562. Circumcision 95 99 = Missing data 69 1 = Superincision, or subincision, or absent 22 2 = Circumcision 563. Maternal Restrictions 98 99 = Missing Data 42 1 = Absent 46 2 = Present 564. Husband Involvement Scale (Couvade) 100 99 = Missing Data 51 1 = Minor Observance or informal 35 2 = Seclusion, or postpartum work taboo, or food taboo NOTE: MARGINALS OFF +-2 FROM HERE ON 565. Menstrual Segregation 103 99 = Missing data 56 1 = Absent 27 2 = Present (either menstrual hut or structural isolation is reported) 566. Male Segregation Practices 105 99 = Missing data 59 1 = Absent or Minor 22 2 = Present 573. Ritual Warfare 105 99 = Missing data 51 1 = Absent 30 2 = Present THE RELATIVE STATUS OF WOMEN PART 1 Whyte, Martin K. 1978. Cross-Cultural Codes Dealing with the Relative Status of Women. ETHNOLOGY 17:211-237. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. Only the odd numbered societies are coded in this study. Because of problems of locating sources, the Khmer and Marquesans were coded for later time periods than the pinpointed focus. The change in the focus was not sufficiently great to merit deletion of the Marquesan codes, although they draw on Auxiliary Primary Sources with a focal date of 1860 rather than 1800. As Divale has shown, shifts of focus between studies will lower reliabilities somewhat, in this case neglibly. Because the Khmer focus was changed from 1292 to 1860, however, Whyte's codes have been changed to "missing data" to avoid erroneous correlations. Between 1987 and Dec 1989, codes for some of the even numbered societies, were filled in as coded by undergraduates at U.C. Irvine. The symbol ":" was used in the student codes to indicate coder disagreement. Student codes were found to be less reliable than the original codes, however, and the original Whyte codes were restored to the data disks in December 1989. At this time it was also decided that "original author codes" should be the exclusive standard for all further corrections. This enables the best use of reliability tests were applicable. 576. Sex of Gods and Spirits and Other Super-Natural Beings 119 99 = Missing data 10 1 = All male 24 2 = Male are more numerous or more powerful 13 3 = Male are more numerous while power equal or male are more powerful while numbers equal 20 4= Both and equal in numbers of power or women more numerous while power equal, or women more powerful while numbers equal 577. Mythical Founders of the Culture 121 99 = Missing Data 21 1 = All male 18 2 = Both sexes, but the role of men more important 19 3 = Both sexes, and the role of both sexes fairly equal 7 4 = Both sexes, but female role more important, or solely female 578. Sex of Shamans 113 99 = Missing Data 14 1 = All male 26 2 = Male more numerous, or more powerful 26 3 = Male more numerous while power equal, or male more powerful while numbers equal, or about equal in both 7 4 = Female more powerful or more numerous or solely female shamans 579. Sex of Reputed Witches 118 99 = Missing Data 16 1 = All male 21 2 = Male predominance in numbers or power 23 3 = Both, and equal in numbers or power 8 4 = Female predominance in numbers of power or only female witches 580. Participation in Collective Religious Ceremonies and Rituals 113 99 = Missing Data 4 1 = Only males 36 2 = Both, but males more commonly or more prominently 28 3 = Both, and fairly equal participation 5 4 = Both, but women more prominent 581. Funeral or Burial Ceremonies Held 102 99 = Missing Data 11 1 = Only for males, or for both, but male more elaborate 73 2 = For both, and roughly equal 582. Intermediate or Local Political Leaders 112 99 = Missing Data 65 1 = Only males 7 2 = Both sexes, but males more numerous or more powerful 2 3 = Both sexes, and males more numerous while females equally powerful or males more powerful while females equally numerous 583. Leadership Posts in Kinship or Extended Family Units 124 99 = Missing Data 52 1 = Include men only 6 2 = Both, but men have more say and influence 4 3 = Both, with roughly equal influence 584. Participation in Collective Fighting and Warfare 116 99 = Missing Data 62 1 = Only men 8 2 = Both, but men do most fighting, women only aid 585. Proportional Contribution of Women to Overall Subsistence 94 99 = Missing Data 2 1 = Low 2 2 = 14 3 = 23 4 = 27 5 = 18 6 = 2 7 = 4 8 = High 586. Relative Time and Effort Expended on Subsistence Activities 98 99 = Missing Data 14 1 = Men clearly expend more 54 2 = Men and women expend roughly equal 20 3 = Women clearly expend more 587. Community-wide Exclusively Male Work Groups 108 99 = Missing Data 20 1 = None 44 2 = For one activity 14 3 = For two or more activities 588. Community-wide Exclusively Female Work Groups 114 99 = Missing data 45 1 = None 27 2 = For one or more activity 589. Degree of Segregation in Subsistence Activities 109 99 = Missing Data 15 1 = Men and women are sharply segregated 41 2 = Some segregation 21 3 = Little or no segregation in these activities 590. Inheritance of Property of Some Economic Value 105 99 = Missing Data 18 1 = Only males, or males except in unusual circumstances 27 2 = Both, but males have definite preference 22 3 = Roughly equal inheritance rights by sex 4 4 = Female preference, or exclusive female rights 591. Ownership or Control of the Use of Dwellings 114 99 = Missing Data 22 1 = Solely by men 12 2 = Most owned by men 25 3 = Equal ownership, or no preferential rights 13 4 = Most or all owned or controlled by women 592. Control of Disposal and Use of Fruits of the Labor Done Solely by Men 94 99 = Missing Data 30 1 = Men have virtually total say 41 2 = Men have predominant say, or no indication of preference 12 3 = Men and women have equal say 9 4 = Women have the predominant or total say 593. Control of Disposal and Use of Fruits of the Labor Done by Men and Women 105 99 = Missing Data 7 1 = Men have virtually total say 6 2 = Men have the predominant say 60 3 = Men and women have equal say, or no indication of preference 8 4 = Women have the predominant or total say 594. Control of Disposal and Use of Fruits of the Labor Done Solely by Women 94 99 = Missing Data 6 1 = Men have virtually total say or predominant say 10 2 = Men and women have equal say 62 3 = Women have the predominant say, or no indication of preference 14 4 = Women have virtually total say 595. Domestic work 94 99 = Missing Data 47 1 = Males do virtually none 45 2 = Males do some, but mostly done by females 596. Double Standard in Regard to Premarital Sex 113 99 = Missing Data 32 1 = Yes 41 2 = No, equal restrictions on male and female 597. Double Standard in Regard to Extramarital Sex 111 99 = Missing Data 32 1 = Yes 41 2 = No, equal restrictions 2 3 = Male punished more severely for transgression 598. Extramarital Affairs of Married Women 100 99 = Missing Data 40 1 = Not allowed, and apparently rare 29 2 = Not allowed, but apparently not uncommon 17 3 = Allowed, or very common 599. Menstrual Taboos 124 99 = Missing Data 11 1 = No menstrual taboos 15 2 = Rule vs. intercourse with menstruating woman 9 3 = Personal restrictions on menstruants, e.g., dietary 3 4 = Stated belief that menstrual blood is dangerous to men 3 5 = A rule that menstruating women may not cook for men 6 6 = Menstruating women are segregated from men, perhaps in a menstrual hut 15 7 = A rule that menstruating women may not have contact with some male things, e.g., fishing gear, bows 600. The Role of Men and Women in Procreation Understood 93 99 = Missing Data 7 1 = Men are thought to play the more important role 80 2 = Belief in roughly equal contributions, or no evidence of greater contribution by either sex 6 3 = Women are thought to play the more important role 601. Sexual Drives and Urges Understood 93 99 = Missing Data 17 1 = Men are thought to have stronger urges 71 2 = Belief that urges are roughly equal, or no evidence of belief in greater urges by either sex 5 3 = Women are thought to have stronger urges 602. An Explicit View that Sexual Activity is Dangerous or Contaminating 118 99 = Missing Data 15 1 = Yes 53 2 = No 603. Role of the Older Generation in Arranging Marriages (1st Marriages Only) 103 99 = Missing Data 13 1 = Males monopolize arrangement 33 2 = Both males and females participate, males have more say 28 3 = Both participate, and with roughly equal say 9 4 = Both males and females participate, females have more say 604. Voice of the Potential Bride and Groom in Marriage Decisions 106 99 = Missing Data 4 1 = Only the groom can initiate or refuse a match 27 2 = Groom has more ability to initiate or refuse 46 3 = Equal ability to initiate or refuse a match 3 4 = Bride has more ability to initiate or refuse 605. Marriage Payments 109 99 = Missing Data 5 1 = Woman exchange 36 2 = Substantial bride price 10 3 = Bride service 10 4 = Token bride price 10 5 = Gift exchange 6 6 = Dowry 607. Multiple Spouses 94 99 = Missing Data 71 1 = Only for males 4 2 = For both, but more commonly for males 15 3 = For neither 2 4 = For both, but more commonly for females 609. Relative Distances Moved by the Bride and Groom Away from their Families of Orientation at First Marriage 102 99 = Missing Data 58 1 = The female moves farther away 7 2 = About equal distance 19 3 = The male moves farther away 610. Relative Ease of Initiating Divorce 93 99 = Missing Data 5 1 = Divorce is in theory only available to male 12 2 = Divorce is possible for both, but more difficult for female 72 3 = Divorce equally possible, no indication of bias 4 4 = Divorce is possible for both, but more difficult for male, or in theory only available to female 611. Relative Ease of Remarriage 101 99 = Missing Data 21 1 = Possible for both, but fewer obstacles for men 64 2 = Equally possible for both men and women 612. Average Relative Age at First Marriage of Men and of Women 116 99 = Missing Data 2 1 = Women generally older 7 2 = Ages about equal 12 3 = Men 1-2 years older 18 4 = Men 3-4 years older 31 5 = Men more than 4 years older 613. Final Authority over the Care, Handling and Discipline of Infants 119 99 = Missing Data 12 1 = monopolized by males, or males have more say 11 2 = is divided roughly equally 21 3 = is divided, but females have more say 23 4 = is monopolized by females 614. Final Authority over the Up-bringing and Discipline of Post-infant Unmarried Children Living in the Home 118 99 = Missing Data 11 1 = is virtually monopolized by males 14 2 = is divided, but males have more say 34 3 = is divided roughly equally 9 4 = is divided but females have more say, or final say is virtually monopolized by females 615. Wife to Husband Institutionalized Deference (Guttman Scale) 102 99 = Missing Data 29 1 = None of the following coded 15 2 = Husband dominates domestic decision making 21 3 = + Wife excluded from many social gatherings 9 4 = + Wife rarely disputes husband 7 5 = + Husband has seating priority 3 6 = + Wife kneels and bows when greeting husband 616. A Stated Preference for Children of One Sex 93 99 = Missing Data 28 1 = For males 54 2 = Equal, no preference 11 3 = For females 617. Any Evidence of Infanticide 115 99 = Missing Data 6 1 = Mostly for females 64 2 = For both, or for neither 1 3 = Mostly for males 618. Early Training for Adult Duties 93 99 = Missing Data 1 1 = Boys are trained earlier generally 70 2 = Training begins at roughly equal ages, no stated bias by sex 22 3 = Girls are trained earlier generally 619. Punishment for Equal Misbehavior 93 99 = Missing Data 3 1 = Boys are punished more severely 82 2 = Punishment about equal, no stated bias by sex 8 3 = Girls are punished more severely 620. Physical Punishment of the Spouse Condoned 123 99 = Missing Data 39 1 = Only husband hitting wife generally 16 2 = Physical punishment by neither 8 3 = Either may hit the other, or only wife may hit husband 621. An Explicit View that Men Should and Do Dominate their Wives 123 99 = Missing Data 42 1 = Yes 19 2 = No, evidence of rough equality 2 3 = No, evidence of wife dominance 622. Attendance and Participation in General Community Gathering 124 99 = Missing Data 27 1 = Only men, or both, but men more often or more prominently 35 2 = Both equally, although perhaps segregated 623. Existence of General Female Initiation Ceremonies 110 99 = Missing Data 36 1 = No initiations for females 8 2 = Customary minimal social recognition 10 3 = +Personal dramatization of the initiate 12 4 = +Organized social response 10 5 = +Affective social response (e.g., punishment or operations) 624. Any Belief that the Status of Women has Changed in Folklore or History 93 99 = Missing Data 6 1 = A belief it has declined 83 2 = No such belief, or no change 4 3 = A belief it has improved 625. High Value Placed on Males being Aggressive, Strong, and Sexually Potent 105 99 = Missing Data 26 1 = Marked emphasis 33 2 = Moderate emphasis 22 3 = Little or no emphasis 626. Belief that Women are Generally Inferior to Men 93 99 = Missing Data 27 1 = Yes 66 2 = No such belief 627. A Statement that Women Have More Informal Influence than Formal Norms of the Society Would Make It Appear 93 99 = Missing Data 49 1 = No such statement or implication 25 2 = A statement or implication of somewhat more informal influence 19 3 = A statement or implication of much more informal influence 628. Property Control Scale 93 99 = Missing Data 4 1 = Women have low control over property 19 2 = 60 3 = 10 4 = Women have high control over property 629. Kin Power Scale 93 99 = Missing Data 19 1 = Low power of women in kinship contexts 52 2 = 22 3 = High power of women in kinship contexts 630. Value of Life Scale 93 99 = Missing Data 8 1 = Low value placed on women's lives 37 2 = 48 3 = High value placed on women's lives 631. Value of Labor 93 99 = Missing Data 1 1 = Low value of women's labor 9 2 = 40 3 = 34 4 = 9 5 = High value of women's labor 632. Domestic Authority Scale 97 99 = Missing Data 8 1 = Low women's domestic authority 21 2 = 32 3 = 28 4 = High women's domestic authority 633. Ritualized Female Solidarity Scale 93 99 = Missing Data 26 1 = Low female solidarity 38 2 29 3 = High female solidarity 634. Control of Sex Scale 94 99 = Missing Data 3 1 = Stricter controls over women's marital and sexual lives 56 2 = 33 3 = More equal controls over women's marital and sexual lives 635. Ritualized Fear Scale 93 99 = Missing Data 6 1 = High ritualized fear of women 18 2 = 69 3 = Low ritualized fear of women 636. Joint Participation Scale 95 99 = Missing Data 10 1 = Low joint participation of men and women 50 2 = 31 3 = High joint participation of men and women CULTURAL THEORIES OF ILLNESS George P. Murdock and Suzanne Wilson. 1978. ETHNOLOGY 17:449-470. 651. Theories of Contagion 58 99 = Missing data 81 1 = Absence of such a cause 46 2 = Minor or relatively unimportant cause 1 3 = An important auxiliary cause 0 4 = Predominant cause recognized by the society 652. Theories of Mystical Retribution 55 99 = Missing data 26 1 = Absence of such a cause 68 2 = Minor or relatively unimportant cause 32 3 = An important auxiliary cause 5 4 = Predominant cause recognized by the society 653. Theories of Soul Loss 59 99 = Missing data 96 1 = Absence of such a cause 30 2 = Minor or relatively unimportant cause 1 3 = An important auxiliary cause 0 4 = Predominant cause recognized by the society 654. Theories of Spirit Aggression 55 99 = Missing data 2 1 = Absence of such a cause 18 2 = Minor or relatively unimportant cause 37 3 = An important auxiliary cause 74 4 = Predominant cause recognized by the society 655. Theories of Sorcery 56 99 = Missing data 16 1 = Absence of such a cause 45 2 = Minor or relatively unimportant cause 45 3 = An important auxiliary cause 24 4 = Predominant cause recognized by the society 656. Theories of Witchcraft 55 99 = Missing data 81 1 = Absence of such a cause 24 2 = Minor or relatively unimportant cause 17 3 = An important auxiliary cause 9 4 = Predominant cause recognized by the society FEMALE POWER AND MALE DOMINANCE Sanday, Peggy. 1981. FEMALE POWER AND MALE DOMINANCE. Previously unpublished codes provided by the author. 657. Flexible Marriage Mores (Divorce for both men and women: or mild punishment for adultery) 44 99 = Missing data 28 1 = Absent 114 2 = Present 658. Females Produce Goods for Nondomestic Distribution 34 99 = Missing data 27 1 = Absent 125 2 = Present 659. Demand for Female Produce beyond Household 51 99 = Missing data 40 1 = Absent 95 2 = Present 660. Female Economic Control of Products of Own Labor 47 99 = Missing data 41 1 = Absent 98 2 = Present 661. Female Political Participation, at least informal influence 41 99 = Missing data 62 1 = Absent 83 2 = Present 662. Female Solidarity Groups, formal or informal 56 99 = Missing data 93 1 = Absent 37 2 = Present 663. Female Power Guttman Scale 53 99 = Missing data 11 1 = all items absent 9 2 = flexible marriage mores only (657) 5 3 = plus female nondomestic production (658) 13 4 = plus demand for female produce (659) 23 5 = plus female economic control (660) 41 6 = plus female political participation 31 7 = plus female solidarity groups 664. Ideology of Male Toughness 78 99 = Missing data 21 1 = Absent 87 2 = Present 665. Male Segregation: One or more places where males congregate alone, or males occupy a separate part of the household, or there is sharp ceremonial segregation of the sexes. 75 99 = Missing data 24 1 = Absent 87 2 = Present 666. Moderate or Frequent Interpersonal Violence 55 99 = Missing data 43 1 = Absent 88 2 = Present 667. Rape: Incidents reports, or thought of as means of punishment women, or part of ceremony. 91 99 = Missing data 45 1 = Absent 50 2 = Present 668. At least some Wives taken from Hostile Groups 55 99 = Missing data 84 1 = Absent 47 2 = Present 669. Male Aggression Guttman Scale 79 99 = Missing data 15 1 = no items present (664) 5 2 = ideology of male toughness only (665) 18 3 = plus separate places for men (666) 12 4 = plus interpersonal violence (667) 19 5 = plus rape institutionalized or reported (668) 38 6 = plus taking wives from hostile groups (669) 670. Composite Male Dominance (663 plus 669): Lo Female Power, High Male Aggression. 47 99 = Missing data 45 1 = sexes `equal' -- i.e., female power scale 5 or above, and male aggression scale 4 or below 55 2 = Amythical@ male -- female power scale 5 or above, and male aggression scale 5 or above 39 3 = sexes Aunequal@--female power scale 4 or below Pollution Beliefs 671. Menstrual Taboos (H16) 76 99 = Missing data 8 1 = no menstrual restrictions 26 2 = one restriction present 25 3 = two restrictions 17 4 = three 15 5 = four 19 6 = five 672. Male Avoidance of Female Sexuality (A11) (CHECK IF CORRECT ASSIGNMENT OF CODES) 76 99 = Missing data 26 1 = none 51 2 = sexual intercourse prohibited during menstruation 31 3 = sexual intercourse prohibited at other times also 8 4 = men avoid or fear female genitals Creation Stories 673. Sex of Creative Agent, Ancestor, or Culture-Hero 147 99 = Missing data 6 1 = Female 2 2 = Sexless 6 3 = Couple 9 4 = Male 3 5 = Animal 13 6 = Supreme being or force 674. Origin of First Creator or Ancestor 147 99 = Missing data, or no information 13 1 = From within (`feminine') 3 2 = From within and without 21 3 = From without (`masculine') 2 4 = Void 675. Mode of First-Mentioned Creation 147 99 = Missing data 14 1 = From the body: Union and/or birth 2 2 = From the body: Self-propagation 20 3 = From other than the body 3 4 = Cannot be determined 676. Creation Stories (composite of 675 and 656, plus additional societies) 74 99 = Missing 20 1 = feminine symbolism 36 2 = couple symbolism 56 3 = masculine symbolism NOTE: information in Table C.4 sufficient to distinguish: 1 = feminine symbolism 2 = masculine-feminine symbolism: ambiguous 3 = couple symbolism 4 = masculine symbolism: discrepant feminine element also present 5 = masculine symbolism Predictor Variables 677. Migration 81 99 = Missing data 47 1 = aboriginal area or migrated centuries ago 58 2 = recent migration, within past 100-150 years, or people are said to be migrating conquerors 678. Food Stress or Hunger 48 99 = Missing data 47 1 = food constant 62 2 = occasional hunger or famine 26 3 = periodic or chronic hunger 3 4 = starvation or evidence of protein deficiency (NOTE: exact coding distinction between 3 and 4 unclear) 679. Warfare or Fighting 53 99 = Missing data 41 1 = absent or occasional or periodical 92 2 = frequent or endemic FEMALE STATUS: INDEPENDENT VARIABLES PART 1 Whyte, Martin K. 1978. THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN PREINDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES. Princeton University Press. Previously Unpublished codes provided by the author. ONLY THE ODD NUMBERED SOCIETIES ARE CODED IN THIS STUDY. 693. Frequency of Intercommunity Armed Conflict 95 . = Missing data 49 1 = Past, supralocal, or absent 42 2 = Present and endemic local warfare (collapsed from an original five categories) 694. Male Initiation Ceremonies (Guttman Scale - see Frank Young, 1965) (coefficient of scalability = .76) 111 . = Missing data 37 1 = No initiation 10 2 = Minimal social recognition 7 3 = Personal dramatization of the initiate 3 4 = Organized social response 18 5 = Affective social response: beating, hazing or operations 695. Male Solidarity (Guttman Scale - see Young and Bacdayan 1965) (scalability = .88) 93 . = Missing data 57 1 = No institutionalized male solidarity 7 2 = Some exclusive male activity protected by physical or normative barriers 6 3 = Ritualization given to this activity 14 4 = Definite ranking of men within this activity 9 5 = War training or planning a part of this activity 700. Crimes against Person Punished 94 . = Missing data 37 1 = By person or group wronged 55 2 = By government action 704. Private Property 102 . = Missing data 70 1 = Absent 14 2 = Present 711. Societal Complexity (Guttman Scale - Freeman and Winch 1957) (scalability .643, a shade below accepted minimum of .65) 93 . = Missing data 37 1 = Absence of all traits in scale 13 2 = Crimes punished by government (704) 9 3 = Full-time specialized priests 1 4 = Formal education 8 5 = Written language 25 6 = Full-time bureaucrats (705) 712. Institutionalized Envy (scaled by unweighted sum for presence or absence of four correlated indicators -- (a) men imitate women, (b) women imitate men, and (c) exclusive mother-infant sleeping, and (3) exclusive mother-child sleeping). Constructed arithmetically from means and cutting points. 100 . = Missing data 13 1 = No items present 14 2 = One or two item present 59 3 = Three of four items present 713. Religion 93 . = Missing data 14 1 = Classical religion (Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism) 31 2 = Mixture of classical and pre-classical 48 3 = Pre-classical 714. Sex Ratio (WARNING: subject to errors in ethnographic reporting) 96 . = Missing data 10 1 = Female excess 60 2 = Roughly equal 20 3 = Male excess 715. Systematic Absences of Married Males (Military service, Labor elsewhere, Extended trade expeditions, etc.) 94 . = Missing data 38 1 = No systematic absences 6 2 = Systematic absences -- not presently, but within memory of present adults 48 3 = Systematic absences common presently QUALITY CONTROL VARIABLES 716. Sex of Coders 93 . = Missing data 12 1 = Both male 43 2 = Male and female 38 3 = Both female 720. Sex of Authorities 93 . = Missing data 66 1 = All males 23 2 = Mixed males and females 4 3 = All females 722. Occupation of Authorities 95 . = Missing data (or some or all unknown) 55 1 = No anthropologist 30 2 = Some anthropologists 6 3 = All anthropologists 723. Formal Fieldwork training of authorities 94 . = Missing data (or some or all unknown) 56 1 = All had some 29 2 = some had 7 3 = None had any 724. Knowledge of native language 99 . = Missing data (or some or all unknown) 52 1 = All knew it well 33 2 = Some knew it well 2 3 = None knew it well 725. Total periods of fieldwork 97 . = Missing data (or some or all unknown) 11 1 = One year or less 36 2 = One to three years 42 3 = More than three years 726. Anthropological Present 93 . = Missing data 8 1 = Before 1800 A.D. 34 2 = 1801-1900 40 3 = 1901-1950 11 4 = After 1950 A.D. HUSBAND-WIFE RELATIONSHIPS Broude, Gwen, and Sarah J. Greene. 1983. Cross-Cultural Codes on Husband-Wife Relationships. ETHNOLOGY 22:263-280. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. 739. Marriage Arrangements 38 . = Missing data 46 1 = Individual selects and/or courts partner autonomously: approval by parents or others unnecessary 26 2 = Individual selects and/or courts partner autonomously: parental, kin, and/or community approval necessary or highly desirable 5 3 = Individual suggests partner to parents or others: arrangements for courtship or marriage then proceed if choice is approved OR parents ask approval of individuals to initiate a match OR individual is approached by parent or others on behalf of suitor and can accept or reject the match 27 4 = Individual choice and arranged marriages are alternatives 25 5 = Parents choose partner: individual can object 19 6 = Parents choose partner: individual cannot easily object or rarely objects in fact 740. Marriage Arrangements (Female) 35 . = Missing data 12 1 = Individual selects and/or courts partner autonomously: approval by parents or others unnecessary 40 2 = Individual selects and/or courts partner autonomously: parental, kin, and/or community approval necessary or highly desirable 4 3 = Individual suggests partner to parents or others; arrangements for courtship or marriage then proceed if choice is approved OR parents ask approval of individuals to initiate a match OR individual is approached by parent or others on behalf of suitor and can accept or reject the match 27 4 = Individual choice and arranged marriages are alternatives 35 5 = Parents choose partner: individual can object 33 6 = Parents choose partner: individual cannot easily object or rarely objects in fact 741. Widow Remarriage: Choice of Partner 94 . = Missing data 28 1 = Widow chooses new husband herself with no outside interferences 27 2 = Remarriage into first husband's kin group usually or preferred, but widow can choose new husband from elsewhere if she wishes 4 3 = Widow chooses new husband herself, but from first husband's kin group or community 27 4 = Widow's husband's kin chooses new husband 6 5 = Remarriage is absent, uncommon, or strongly disapproved 742. Time of Mourning Before Remarriage of Widows 147 . = Missing data 4 1 = No period of mourning: remarriage as soon as possible 3 2 = One week to two months of mourning 9 3 = Over two months but less than one year of mourning 18 4 = One year or over of mourning 5 5 = No remarriage 743. Attitude towards Divorce 126 . = Missing data 11 1 = Expected, accepted, tolerated, not disapproved 16 2 = Mildly disapproved, e.g., attempts by others to reconcile couple, marriages expected to be permanent but divorce accepted without stigma if inevitable 11 3 = Approved if reasons are considered justified; otherwise disapproved 11 4 = Expected, accepted, tolerated, not disapproved in first years of marriage and/or before children; otherwise disapproved 11 5 = Strongly disapproved; stigma attached to divorce 744. Frequency of Divorce 101 . = Missing data 8 1 = Universal or almost universal 31 2 = Common, frequent, not uncommon 11 3 = Moderate: a small minority of couples divorce 10 4 = Frequent in first years of marriage and/or before children; rare thereafter 25 5 = Rare, isolated instances, never 745. Grounds for Divorce (Male) 105 . = Missing data 54 1 = No grounds necessary for divorce; divorce equally easy or difficult with out without justification 17 2 = Grounds not absolutely necessary, but divorce is financially, legally and/or socially earlier with them 7 3 = Divorce only with grounds 3 4 = No divorce 746. Grounds for Divorce (Female) 104 . = Missing data 39 1 = No grounds necessary for divorce; divorce equally easy or difficult with or without justification 30 2 = Grounds not absolutely necessary, but divorce is financially, legally and/or socially easier with them 9 3 = Divorce only with grounds 4 4 = No divorce 748. Customs surrounding Consummation of Marriage 120 . = Missing data 21 1 = Socially recognized as a special occasion and couple granted privacy 6 2 = Special occasion and private, but signal of consummation proof of potency, virginity awaited by others 8 3 = Special occasion, others present 31 4 = Not a special occasion 750. Sleeping Proximity between Husbands and Wives 76 . = Missing data 43 1 = Same room and close proximity: e.g., same bed, same blanket, touching, back to back, adjacent sleeping places allocated to spouses 15 2 = Same room but no close proximity: e.g., different beds, different hammocks, different sections of room 45 3 = Same room, proximity unknown 7 4 = Different rooms 751. Privacy in Sleeping for Husbands and Wives (Only if Husband and Wife sleep in Same Room) 96 . = Missing data 6 1 = Husband and wife sleep together alone or with infants 13 2 = Husband and wife sleep with prepubescent children 6 3 = Unmarried members of nuclear family sleep with husband and wife, but either sons or daughters sleep elsewhere after early childhood 22 4 = All members of nuclear family below marriageable age sleep with husband and wife 11 5 = Other adults occasionally sleep with husband and wife; e.g., other adult dependents who are temporary members of the newlyweds household 32 6 = Other adults permanently sleep with husband and wife 752. Husband-Wife Eating Arrangements 76 . = Missing data 71 1 = Husband and wife usually eat together 11 2 = Husband and wife are together during meals; wife does not eat with husband, but serves him and/or converses 28 3 = Husband and wife often, usually, or always eat apart 753. Husband-Wife Leisure Time Activities 88 . = Missing data 4 1 = Husband and wife usually spend leisure time together and at home, alone or with nuclear or extended family members 21 2 = Husband and wife sometimes spend leisure time together at home, and sometimes together in a group (e.g., they go over or have visitors); same-sex activities may be present, but they are not salient 21 3 = Husband and wife usually spend leisure time together, but group activities are emphasized: e.g., couple go to dances together, spend their time habitually in camp with others 28 4 = Husband and wife sometimes spend leisure time together as a couple or in a group, but sex-segregated activities are also salient: e.g., couple goes to dances, market together, but then join same-sex group 24 5 = Husband and wife generally spend leisure time apart: same-sex activities predominate 754. Wife-Beating 116 . = Missing data 14 1 = Absent 56 2 = Present 755. Husband Attends Birth 118 . = Missing data 11 1 = Husbands expected or allowed to attend the births of their children and usually do 4 2 = No taboo against presence of husband at births but husbands often (?) or usually are absent 4 3 = Husbands attend births only in emergencies 8 4 = Husbands not allowed to attend births, but have specific tasks or roles associated with labor or delivery 41 5 Husbands not allowed to attend births and are explicitly barred from playing any role in labor or delivery POLITICAL DECISION MAKING AND CONFLICT Marc Ross, 1983. Political Decision Making and Conflict: Additional Cross-Cultural Codes and Scales. ETHNOLOGY 22: 169-192. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. Ross selected the even numbered societies in the standard sample to code, and numbered them 1 to 93. If data were insufficient to code, he substituted the previous or next society depending on whether their number was even or odd in the list. If the first substitute was inadequate, a second substitute (the opposite adjacent society) was tried. He found 33 cases with insufficient data to code: 10, 14, 15, 24, 32, 38, 39, 44, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 66, 67, 74, 75, 76, 78, 80, 86, 88, 120, 126, 146, 152, 154, 155, 160, 170, 171, 178, 182. He needed 26 odd-numbered substitutions of adjacent societies, but had to drop three cases with no adequate second substitute, for a total coded sample of 90. There are 63 societies remaining to code for his variables. 767. Conflict (Social or Political) in the Local Community 96 99 = Missing data 4 1 = Endemic: a reality of daily existence (e.g., physical violence, feuding, bitter factionalism) 20 2 = High: Conflict present but not a pervasive aspect of daily life 46 3 = Moderate: Disagreements and differences do not result in high violence or severe disruption 20 4 = Mild or rare 768. Conflict between Communities of the Same Society 97 99 = Missing data 25 1 = Endemic: High physical violence, feuding, and/or raiding occur regularly 23 2 = Moderately High, often involving physical violence 21 3 = Moderate: Disputes may occur regularly but tendency to manage them in a more or less peaceful manner 20 4 = Mild or rare 770. Resort to Physical Force by Disputants in settling disputes, Exclusive of Police or institutionalized force, 96 99 = Missing data 34 1 = Often used 32 2 = Sometimes used 24 3 = Rarely or never used 771. Mediation/Negotiation/Arbitration: Third parties in disputes, unable to impose a binding decision, but may facilitate settlement 98 99 = Missing data 57 1 = Often used (to settle disputes) 19 2 = Sometimes used 12 3 = Rarely or never used 773. Internal Warfare (Between communities of same society) 101 99 = Missing data 31 1 = Frequent, occurring at least yearly 14 2 = Common, at least every five years 10 3 = Occasional, at least every generation 30 4 = Rare or never 774. External Warfare (with other societies) 102 99 = Missing data 45 1 = Frequent, occurring at least yearly 13 2 = Common, at least every five years 6 3 = Occasional, at least every generation 20 4 = Rare or never 781. Acceptability of Violence toward Members of the local Community 100 99 = Missing data 0 1 = Valued 7 2 = Acceptable 18 3 = Tolerated 61 4 = Disapproved 782. Acceptability of Violence toward Members of the Same Society, but outside the Local Community 109 99 = Missing data 12 1 = Valued 28 2 = Acceptable 10 3 = Tolerated 27 4 = Disapproved 783. Acceptability of Violence toward people in Other Societies 122 99 = Missing data 39 1 = Valued 16 2 = Acceptable 3 3 = Tolerated 6 4 = Disapproved 789. Type of Cross-Cutting ties: Age Organizations (Grades, Sets) Cutting across Communities 97 99 = Missing data 78 1 = Absent 5 2 = Present but not politically important 6 3 = Present and political important 793. Female Participation in Public Political Arenas, Relative to Males 106 99 = Missing data 8 1 = High: in some situations equal to or greater than that of men 27 2 = Significant but not as high as male involvement 19 3 = Not great but clearly some role for women in public aspects of political life 26 4 = Women generally excluded from public aspects of politics 794. Female Participation in Private Political Arenas, Relative to Males 120 99 = Missing data 35 1 = High: in some situations equal to or greater than that of men 15 2 = Significant but not as high as male involvement 12 3 = Not great but clearly some role for women in private aspects of political life 4 4 = Women do not seem to get involved in political life in private arenas 795. Gender differences in Political or Quasi-Political Positions of Authority 102 99 = Missing data 8 1 = Women and men eligible for some of the same positions and women commonly do so 18 2 = Women and men eligible for some of the same positions and women occasionally do so 7 3 = Women rarely, if ever, hold some of the same positions regardless of rules of eligibility 51 4 = The same political positions are not open to both women and men 796. Separate Female Organizations and Positions 117 99 = Missing data 22 1 = Some associations or organizations under exclusive control of women 15 2 = No associations but some positions of authority for which only women are eligible 32 3 = No associations or positions exclusively controlled by women ADOLESCENT SEXUAL BEHAVIOR Herbert Barry, III, and Alice Schlegel. 1984. Measurements of Adolescent Sexual Behavior in the Standard Sample of Societies. ETHNOLOGY 23: 315-332. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. 827. Sexual Expression in Adolescent Boys and Girls: 828. Sexual Expression in Adolescent Boys and Girls: Encouragement of sexual behavior, taking into account its frequency, emotional intensity, importance, and variety (including range of partners) in adolescence. Heterosexual intercourse is the principal criterion, but heterosexual foreplay, masturbation, homosexuality, sexual jokes, and exposing the genitals were also considered. Heterosexual intercourse and others forms of sexual expression are: Boys Girls 99 = missing data 32 28 0 = 0 1 1 = 9 23 2 = Not approved or admired by parents or authorities. Mild forms (e.g. sexual jokes) sometimes approved. 27 37 3 = 5 3 4 = 12 10 5 = Normally and generally approved [by parents, etc.]. Moderate frequency, intensity, importance, variety 33 31 6 = 15 9 7 = 7 7 8 = Strongly approved and valued [by parents, etc.]. High frequency, variety of sexual behavior admired. 44 34 9 = 2 3 10 = 0 0 829. Sexual Non-restraint in Adolescent Boys and Girls: 830. Sexual Non-restraint in Adolescent Boys and Girls: The absence of sexual restraints such as taboos or restrictions on heterosexual intercourse and other erotic behavior, including heterosexual play, masturbation, and homosexuality. A high degree of modesty, such as the requirement to keep the genitals constantly covered in public, indicates moderate restraint. Incest taboos, if highly emphasized or widely extended, are considered as indicators of restraint. Heterosexual intercourse and others forms of sexual expression are: Boys Girls 99 = 31 27 0 = 0 1 1 = 4 7 2 = Strictly and effectively prohibited 21 36 3 = 7 10 4 = 10 9 5 = Disapproved and punished mildly and inconsistent 30 32 6 = 13 9 7 = 5 3 8 = Condoned and not generally punished 45 37 9 = 20 15 10 = 0 0 NOTE: Sexual Non-restraint = Sexual Expression + 1 more or less. The authors indicate the advisability of using the sum of the two scores as a "Sexual Freedom" index. "Sexual Non-restraint" variables for boys and girls in early and late childhood are formed by the following recodings of variables 326-329: 0 = 11 on variables 326-329 1 = 10 2 = 9 3 = 8 Note: Var. 326 = Early, boys 4 = 7 327 = Early, girls 5 = 6 6 = 5 7 = 4 Var. 328 = Late, boys 8 = 3 329 = Late, girls 9 = 2 10 = 1 831. Differentiation of Adolescence from Childhood for Boys, Girls: 832. Differentiation of Adolescence from Childhood for Boys, Girls: These variables were recoded on a three point scale, collapsed from a 0-10 rating. No cases of 0-1 or 9-10 ratings were reported. Differentiation of adolescent from preadolescent activities, status, and all other attributes of behavior and self-concept: (codesheet definition). Boys Girls 99 = 20 22 1 = (2)Low, mostly the same, no formal transition. Frequent companionship between the two stages (3) (4) 48 62 2 = (5)Substantial, but inconsistent, not formalized, or companionship only for some activities (6) (7) 57 59 3 = (8)High, with formal transition. Infrequent companionship with younger children. 61 43 George P. Murdock and Douglas R. White. 1969. Standard Cross-Cultural Sample. ETHNOLOGY 8: 329-369. Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors. 839. Pinpointing Date by Decade 1 11 = 110 AD 1 29 = 1290 1 52 = 1520 1 53 = 1530 1 55 = 1550 1 62 = 1620 1 63 = 1630 2 65 = 1650 1 71 = 1710 2 75 = 1750 1 77 = 1770 2 80 = 1800 2 82 = 1820 1 83 = 1830 3 84 = 1840 6 85 = 1850 9 86 = 1860 7 87 = 1870 10 88 = 1880 12 89 = 1890 15 90 = 1900 16 91 = 1910 15 92 = 1920 31 93 = 1930 14 94 = 1940 24 95 = 1950 6 96 = 1960 POLYGYNY: FORM AND FREQUENCY Douglas R. White. New Codes (begun in collaboration with John Whiting). Prepared in part under National Science Foundation grant BNS-8507685. See 1988 "Rethinking Polygyny: Co-Wives, Codes and Cultural Systems." Current Anthropology 29:529-571. 863. Distance between Co-Wives 30 99 = Missing data 1 0 = One wife, multiple husbands 25 1 = One wife (Atlas M) 59 2 = Co-residence for multiple wives (Atlas PR) 25 3 = One wife resides with husband, others in separate houses 13 4 = One wife resides with husband, others in separate communities 31 5 = Separate housing in compound for every wife (Atlas QS) 2 6 = Separate housing in village for every wife [as might occur, for example, with men's houses, e.g., Otoro - check] 866. Higher rates of polygyny for men of wealth, rank, nobility, or higher social class. * = merge 1-3: incomplete coding for categories above 1 31 99 = Missing data 64 0 = No Stratified polygyny 92 1 = Stratified Polygyny ?10 = Hereditary upper social class (note: incompletely coded) ? 9 = Achieved rank connected with groups (note: incompletely coded) ?73 = Achieved wealth - due to contributions of wives (ditto) 868. Multiple wives for Leaders, Headmen, Chiefs 24 99 = Missing data 95 0 = No, or unimportant 67 1 = Yes, or Leaders have more wives than commoners 869. Multiple wives for Medicine Men or Shamans NOTE: sometimes coded 0 for General polygyny although magicians also polygynous--unclear whether higher polygyny level should be required in this instance for this code 25 99 = Missing data 141 0 = No, or unimportant 20 1 = Yes 870. Additional wives or concubines from Slavery or Capture in Warfare NOTE: It is often difficult to distinguish secondary wives taken as slave concubines, or marriage to freed slaves, and wives taken from capture in warfare, as slavery areas often capture slaves 28 99 = Missing data 100 0 = No female captives ? 8 1 = Women taken as captives but not married ?58 2 = Captives in war or slaves taken as wives or concubines 877. Polygyny Guttman Scale I: "Co-Wife Autonomy" 5 99 = Missing data 69 0 = None of the following 51 1 = Stratified Polygyny (854) only 6 2 = Negative binomial (855), plus above 13 3 = Marriage of female captives (858), plus above 7 4 = General polygyny (849), plus above 9 5 = Rooming apart (853), plus above 26 6 = Polygynous compounds (852), plus above 878. Polygyny Guttman Scale II: "Charismatic" 4 99 = Missing data 44 0 = None of the following 72 1 = Rooming together (853) only 26 2 = Co-Wives same dwelling (852), plus above 25 3 = Sororal (851), plus above 9 4 = Polygynous hunters (855), plus above 6 5 = Exclusive sororal polygyny (851), plus above THE NATURE OF WARFARE Valerie Wheeler [Nammour], 1974. Drums and Guns: A Cross-Cultural Study of the Nature of War. Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Oregon. The author's comments on reliability and validity are cited after each code, where relevant. References cited: Naroll, Raoul. 1966. Does military deterrence deter? Trans-Action 3(2): 14-20. Otterbein, Keith F. 1970. The Evolution of War: A Cross-cultural study. HRAF Press. 907. VALUE OF WAR: VIOLENCE/WAR AGAINST NON-MEMBERS OF THE GROUP 40 99 = Missing Data 72 1 = Enjoyed and considered to have high value 51 2 = Considered to be a necessary evil 23 3 = Consistently avoided, denounced, not engaged in "This variable complements but does not duplicate, or resolve, variable [906].... Clumsy as this variable may seem, it was quite easy to code, largely due to clear observation by the ethnographer as to the value of war. The evidence may be comments by the observer, texts or poems and songs, or statements by the actors." Wheeler 1974: 275 909. SUBJUGATION OF TERRITORY OR PEOPLE 18 99 = Missing Data 35 1 = Present 133 2 = Absent or not mentioned 910. COLLECTION OF TRIBUTE 18 99 = Missing Data 18 1 = Present 150 2 = Absent or not mentioned 911. ACQUISITION OF LAND: FIELDS, HUNTING/FISHING TERRITORIES, PASTURES 18 99 = Missing Data 50 1 = Present 118 2 = Absent or not mentioned 912. PLUNDER (INCLUDING CAPTIVES FOR SLAVES, HOSTAGES, ADOPTION) 18 99 = Missing Data 104 1 = Present 64 2 = Absent or not mentioned 913. TROPHIES AND HONORS (INCLUDING CAPTIVES FOR SACRIFICE) 18 99 = Missing Data 49 1 = Present 119 2 = Absent or not mentioned 914. REVENGE 17 99 = Missing Data 111 1 = Present 58 2 = Absent or not mentioned
