George P. Murdock and Diana O. Morrow. 1970. Subsistence Economy and Supportive Practices: Cross-Cultural Codes 1. ETHNOLOGY 9:302-330.
Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors.
This file presents a body of coded cultural data pertaining to the derivation, transportation, preservation, and storage of food in a typical (or focal) community in each of the 186 SCCS societies. The reader who uses the coded materials should bear in mind two warnings. First, since the data for each society have been assessed or "pinpointed" with reference to a particular local group at a particular date, the codes may not hold true for the larger society as a whole. For such complex and diversified cultures as those of the Burmese, Chinese, Egyptians, Japanese, Russians, Turks, and Vietnamese, for example, the indicated absence of such traits as banks, fishing, improved highways, markets, and motorized land and water transport, however valid for the pinpointed locality, may actually be misrepresentative of the total society. Second, since the data were coded primarily with reference to food or subsistence, the reader should not assume that the codes adequately reflect the actual importance of such activities as trade, animal husbandry, or transportation in the total culture. Variable 5, for example, assesses only the contribution of animal husbandry to the food supply and ignores its importance in other respects, e.g., as a source of prestige or of products other than food.
1. INTERCOMMUNITY TRADE AS FOOD SOURCE
# of Code Descriptive
Cases # = Label
3 . = Missing Data
7 1 = No Trade
51 2 = Food Imports absent although trade present
Food Imports present, and contribute:
4 3 = Salt or Minerals only
81 4 = < 10% of food (90% form local extractive sources)
38 5 = < 50% of food, and less than any single local source
- 6 = < 50% of food, and more than any single local source
2 7 = > 50% of food
2. FOOD IMPORT ACQUISITION
62 . = Missing Data
49 1 = Direct individual exchanges
10 2 = Indirect individual exchanges
28 3 = Local markets
34 4 = Middlemen
3 5 = Three or four of above
3. AGRICULTURE- CONTRIBUTION TO LOCAL FOOD SUPPLY
35 1 = None
3 2 = Non-food Crops
17 3 = < 10%
12 4 = < 50%, and less than any other single source, incl. trade
42 5 = < 50%, and more than any other single source, incl. trade
77 6 = Primarily agricultural
5. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY- CONTRIBUTION TO FOOD SUPPLY
8 1 = None
41 2 = Present, not food source
67 3 = < 10% food supply
33 4 = < 50% - chiefly meat
21 5 = < 50% - chiefly dairy
S 6 = < 50% - chiefly honey
16 7 = > 50%
7. FISHING- CONTRIBUTION TO FOOD SUPPLY
2 . = Missing Data
27 1 = None
79 2 = < 10% food supply
55 3 = < 50%, and less than any other single source, incl. trade
10 4 = < 50%, and more than any other single source, incl. trade
13 5 = > 50%
9. HUNTING- CONTRIBUTION TO FOOD SUPPLY
4 . = Missing Data
18 1 = None
3 2 = Not food source
85 3 = < 10% food supply
61 4 = < 50%, and less than any other single source, incl. trade
8 5 = < 50%, and more than any other single source, incl. trade
7 6 = > 50%
11. GATHERING- CONTRIBUTION TO FOOD SUPPLY
4 . = Missing Data
16 1 = None
116 2 = < 10% food supply
40 3 = < 50%, and less than any other single source, incl. trade
7 4 = < 50%, and more than any other single source, incl. trade
3 5 = > 50%
13. LAND TRANSPORT (especially regarding food transport)
1 . = Missing Data
108 1 = Human Carriers, incl. tumpline
41 2 = Pack Animals
13 3 = Draft Animals (sleds, travois)
12 4 = Animal Drawn Wheeled vehicles
11 5 = Motorized vehicles
15. WATER TRANSPORT
5 . = Missing Data
20 1 = None, but feasible note: 1 & 2 should be reversed
56 2 = Not feasible
10 3 = Floats or rafts
73 4 = Human powered craft
20 5 = Sail powered craft
2 6 = Motorized craft
17. MONEY (MEDIA OF EXCHANGE) AND CREDIT
3 . = Missing Data
77 1 = No media of exchange or money
12 2 = Domestically usable articles as media of exchange
263 = Tokens of conventional value as media of exchange
424 = Foreign coinage or paper currency
265 = Indigenous coinage or paper currency
18. CREDIT SOURCE
17 . = Missing Data
113 1 = Personal loans between friends or relatives
26 2 = Internal money lending specialists
23 3 = External money lending specialists
7 5 = Banks or comparable institutions
20. FOOD STORAGE
4 . = Missing Data
36 1 = None
129 2 = Individual households
7 3 = Communal facilities
3 4 = Political agent controlled repositories
7 5 = Economic agent controlled repositories
21. FOOD SURPLUS VIA STORAGE
. = Missing Data
69 1 = None or barely adequate
84 2 = Simple or adequate
33 3 = Complex or More than adequate
INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD
Barry, Herbert, III, and Leonora M. Paxson. 1971. Infancy and Early
Childhood: Cross-Cultural Codes 2. ETHNOLOGY 10: 466-508.
Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors.
Variables 23-32 deal with infancy only, from the first year until the
transition to early childhood (see 38-39, 42, 44), usually at 12-18
months. The early and late infancy periods of variables 24-27 refer
to the first few months after birth versus the period after crawling
begins, usually around 9 months. Variables 33-38 include both infancy and
early childhood, the latter usually to the age of 4-5 years. Variables
39-50 deal with the transition to childhood, around 12-18 months.
Variables 51-60 provide a comparison of infancy and childhood.
23. SLEEPING PROXIMITY OF PARENTS TO INFANT
13 . = Missing Data
- 1 = Mo and Fa in different room than infant
12 2 = Mo same room (not bed) as infant, Fa different room
- 3 = Mo same room (not bed) as infant, Fa unspecified
30 4 = Mo same room (not bed) as infant, Fa different bed
55 5 = Mo, Fa same room as infant, beds not specified
24 6 = Mo same bed as infant, Fa different room
5 7 = Mo same bed as infant, Fa not specified
24 8 = Mo same bed as infant, Fa same room
23 9 = Mo and Fa in same bed as infant
24. BODILY RESTRICTIVENESS - EARLY INFANCY
55 . = Missing Data
42 1 = None except in emergency
1 2 = Loose confinement - Tether or playpen
21 3 = Limited space - Bed or hammock
41 4 = Movement limited - Swaddling, heavy blankets
26 5 = Often Bound - Cradle Board
25. BODILY RESTRICTIVENESS - LATER INFANCY
63 . = Missing Data
61 1 = None except in emergency
8 2 = Loose confinement - Tether or playpen
14 3 = Limited space - Bed or hammock
23 4 = Movement limited - Swaddling, heavy blankets
17 5 = Often Bound - Cradle Board
26. BODILY CONTACT - EARLY INFANCY
65 . = Missing Data
3 1 = Limited to routine and precautionary care
16 2 = Occasionally
33 3 = Up to 1/2 time
49 4 = > 1/2 time
20 5 = Almost Constantly
27. BODILY CONTACT - LATE INFANCY
69 . = Missing Data
3 1 = Limited to routine and precautionary care
15 2 = Occasionally
41 3 = Up to 1/2 time
43 4 = > 1/2 time
15 5 = Almost Constantly
31. INFANT CRYING- RESPONSE
83 . = Missing Data
3 1 = Indifferent or punitive
3 2 = Slow or perfunctory, nurturant
19 3 = Speedy but inconsistently nurturant
67 4 = Generally speedy, nurturant
11 5 = Always speedy, nurturant
32. INFANT CRYING- AMOUNT
139 . = Missing Data
16 1 = Very Infrequent and brief
10 2 = Infrequent and short
9 3 = Infrequent and prolonged
11 4 = Frequent and short
1 5 = Frequent and prolonged
33. CHILDHOOD PAIN INFLICTION
38 . = Missing Data
17 1 = Absent
37 2 = Only neonatally or very mild pain
63 3 = Occasional mild pain
25 4 = Frequent mild pain or infrequent severe pain
6 5 = Frequent pain
- 6 = Very painful
34. POST-PARTUM SEX TABOO
52 . = Missing data
2 1 = Intercourse expected soon after birth
7 2 = None
29 3 = 1 month or less
42 4 = 6 months or less
12 5 = 1 year or less
20 6 = 2 years or less
22 7 = > 2 years
35. CEREMONIALISM SURROUNDING CHILD, BEYOND NUCLEAR FAMILY
7 . = Missing Data
20 1 = None
73 2 = Only within first 2 months
56 3 = One occasion at later age
20 4 = Two or more ceremonies
10 5 = Prominent
36. MAGICAL PROTECTIVENESS APPLIED TO PARENTS AND CHILD
8 . = Missing Data
8 1 = None
22 2 = Only neonatal period, e.g., couvade
76 3 = Slight, neonatally and later
66 4 = Moderate, neonatally and later
6 5 = Exaggerated, neonatally and later
37. PHYSICAL PROTECTIVENESS AGAINST CHILDHOOD ILLNESS
20 . = Missing Data
1 1 = No special effort
43 2 = Slight
79 3 = Moderate, e.g., regular baths
39 4 = Some exceptional techniques, e.g., medicines,
ointments, diapers
4 5 = Variety of exceptional techniques
39. WEANING- AGE AND SEVERITY
29 . = Missing Date
103 1 = > 2 years and gentle
27 2 = > 2 years and severe
17 3 = > 1 year and gentle
5 4 = > 1 year and severe
3 5 = > 6 months and gentle
1 6 = > 6 months and severe
1 7 = < 6 months and gentle
- 8 = < 6 months and severe
40. MOTOR SKILLS- ENCOURAGEMENT IN CHILDHOOD
109 . = Missing Data
2 1 = Discourage or punish early development
2 2 = Ignore development
22 3 = No active assistance, but attention given
42 4 = Definite but inconsistent rewards
9 5 = Strong Encouragement and assistance
41. AUTONOMY- ENCOURAGEMENT IN CHILDHOOD
81 . = Missing Data
25 1 = > 4 years and gradual
3 2 = > 4 years and abrupt
54 3 = 2-4 years and gradual
23 4 = 2-4 years and abrupt, or < 2 years and gradual
- 5 = < 2 years and abrupt
*note: recode category 4
42. ELIMINATION- ENCOURAGEMENT OF CONTROL IN CHILDHOOD
123 0 = None
7 1 = 3-5 years
27 2 = > 18 months
9 3 = > 1 year
7 4 = > 6 months
13 5 = < 6 months
43. COVERING GENITALS- AGE
50 0 = Even adults uncovered
85 1 = Very late
14 2 = Late
2 3 = > 1 year
1 4 = < 6 months
34 5 = After birth
44. WEANING- AGE OF ONSET
30 . = Missing Data
19 1 = up to 12 months
12 2 = 13 - 20 months
67 3 = 21 - 24
6 4 = 25 - 30
36 5 = 31 - 36
9 6 = 37 - 42
7 7 = 43 - 48
- 8 = 49 - 60
- 9 = 61 - 72
45. WEANING- AGE OF TERMINATION
30 . = Missing Data
7 1 = up to 12 months
5 2 = 13 - 20
38 3 = 21 - 24
8 4 = 25 - 30
64 5 = 31 - 36
16 6 = 37 - 42
14 7 = 43 - 48
4 8 = 49 - 60
- 9 = 61 - 72 months
51. NON-MATERNAL RELATIONSHIPS, INFANCY
24 . = Missing Data
5 1 = Almost Exclusively Mother
81 2 = Principally Mother, others minor roles
63 3 = Principally Mother, others important roles
10 4 = Mother < 1/2 care
2 5 = Mother minor but significant
1 6 = Mother minimal except for nursing
52. NON-MATERNAL RELATIONSHIPS, EARLY CHILDHOOD
50 . = Missing Data
- 1 = Almost Exclusively Mother
36 2 = Principally Mother, others important roles
60 3 = Mother < 1/2 care
38 4 = Primarily others
2 5 = Exclusively others
53. ROLE OF FATHER, INFANCY
32 . = Missing Data
8 1 = Distant
27 2 = Rarely close
72 3 = Occasionally close
44 4 = Frequently close
3 5 = Regularly close
54. ROLE OF FATHER, EARLY CHILDHOOD
36 . = Missing Data
4 1 = Distant
18 2 = Rarely Close
46 3 = Occasionally Close
73 4 = Frequently Close
9 5 = Regularly Close
55. PRINCIPAL RELATIONSHIPS, INFANCY CARETAKERS AND COMPANIONS
48 . = Missing Data
31 1 = Children, Females
4 2 = Children, unspecified
11 3 = Children, both sexes
60 4 = Adult Family, Females
- 5 = Adult Family, unspecified
14 6 = Adult Family, both sexes
17 7 = Others, Female
1 9 = Others, both sexes
56. PRINCIPAL RELATIONSHIPS, EARLY CHILDHOOD CARETAKERS AND COMPANIONS
45 . = Missing Data
10 1 = Peer Group, single sex
1 2 = Peer Group, unspecified
43 3 = Peer Group, both sexes
22 4 = Older Children, single sex
8 5 = Older Children, unspecified
22 6 = Older Children, both sexes
14 7 = Adults, single sex
21 9 = Adults, both sexes
57. GENERAL INDULGENCE, INFANCY (taking 51 and 52 into account)
67 . = Missing Data
1 1 = Severe or neglectful
8 2 = Lesser severity
19 3 = Occasional indulgence
80 4 = Greater
11 5 = Highly affectionate
58. GENERAL INDULGENCE, INFANCY- MODIFIERS OF GENERAL SCALE TYPES
67 . = Missing Data
36 1 = Low in category
34 2 = Medium in category
49 3 = High in category
*Note: Combine 57 and 58
59. GENERAL INDULGENCE, EARLY CHILDHOOD (taking 51 and 52 into account)
54 . = Missing Data
2 1 = Severe
24 2 = Less Severity
32 3 = Occasional Severity
64 4 = Greater Leniency
10 5 = Consistently Lenient
60. GENERAL INDULGENCE, EARLY CHILDHOOD: MODIFIERS OF GENERAL SCALE TYPES
54 . = Missing Data
43 1 = Low in Category
44 2 = Medium in Category
45 3 = High in Category
*Note: Combine 59 and 60 to get a fine-scaled variable
SETTLEMENT PATTERNS AND COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
George P. Murdock and Suzanne F. Wilson. 1972. Settlement Patterns and
Community Organization: Cross Cultural Codes 3. ETHNOLOGY 11: 54-295.
Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors.
61. FIXITY OF SETTLEMENT
28 1 = Migratory
21 2 = Semi-nomadic--fixed then migratory
6 3 = Rotating among 2 or more fixed
14 4 = Semi-sedentary--fixed core, some migratory
15 5 = Impermanent--periodically moved
102 6 = Permanent
63. COMMUNITY SIZE
1 . = Missing Data
28 1 = < 50
28 2 = 50-99
45 3 = 100-199
32 4 = 200-399
29 5 = 400-999
15 6 = 1,000-4,999
5 7 = 5,000-49,999
3 8 = > 50,000
64. POPULATION DENSITY
2 . = Missing Data
36 1 = < 1 person per 5 sq. mile
22 2 = 1 person per 1-5 sq. mile
25 3 = 1-5 persons per sq. mile
27 4 = 1-25 persons per sq. mile
34 5 = 26-100 persons per sq. mile
20 6 = 101-500 persons per sq. mile
20 7 = over 500 persons per sq. mile
69. MARITAL RESIDENCE
1 . = Missing data
38 1 = Matrilocal or uxorilocal - with wife's kin
8 2 = Avunculocal - with husband's mother's brother's kin
118 3 = Patrilocal or virilocal - with husband's kin
12 4 = Ambilocal - with either wife's or husband's kin
9 5 = Neolocal - separate from kin
70. DESCENT - MEMBERSHIP IN CORPORATE KINSHIP GROUPS
26 1 = Matrilineal - through female line
10 2 = Double descent: separate groups through male and female
lines
75 3 = Patrilineal - through male line
6 4 = Ambilineal - through one parent in each generation
69 5 = Bilateral - not a corporate kin group
73. COMMUNITY INTEGRATION
6 1 = Lacking or low compared to community segments or larger
polity
26 2 = By common residence only
16 3 = Common Identity, dialect, subculture
78 4 = Overlapping Kin ties
8 5 = Common social or economic status
20 6 = Common political ties
32 7 = Common religious ties
74. PROMINENT COMMUNITY CEREMONIALS
67 1 = Rites of passage
69 2 = Calendrical
36 3 = Magical or religious
14 4 = Individual sponsored and communally attended (e.g., potlatch)
75. CEREMONIAL ELEMENTS
54 1 = Feasting and/or drinking
10 2 = Exchanges other than food
51 3 = Entertainment
57 4 = Sacrifice other than human
13 5 = Human sacrifice
1 6 = Masochistic behavior
77. LOCAL POLITICAL SUCCESSION, PRIMARY
3 . = Missing data
17 1 = No headman or council
10 2 = By appointment
10 3 = Seniority
2 4 = Divination
37 5 = Informal consensus
22 6 = Electoral process
61 7 = Patrilineal
14 8 = Matrilineal
10 9 = Hereditary with personal qualifications
79. POLYGAMY (see 68)
2 1 = Polyandry - primarily monogamous with some plural husbands
31 2 = Monogamy
96 3 = Polygyny < 20% plural wives (if more frequent than polyandry)
57 4 = Polygyny > 20% plural wives (if more frequent than polyandry)
80. FAMILY SIZE
7 1 = Nuclear Monogamous
70 2 = Nuclear Polygynous
16 3 = Stem Family
59 4 = Small extended
34 5 = Large extended
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
Tuden, Arthur, and Catherine Marshall. 1972. Settlement Patterns and
Community Organization: Cross Cultural Codes 3. ETHNOLOGY 11:436-464.
Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors.
83. LEVELS OF SOVEREIGNTY
2 . = Missing data
98 1 = Stateless society
31 2 = Sovereignty 1st hierarchical level up
14 3 = Sovereignty 2nd hierarchical level up
41 4 = Sovereignty 3rd or higher hierarchical level
84. HIGHER POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
3 . = Missing data
85 1 = Absent
28 2 = Peace group
46 3 = Alliances
7 4 = Confederation
17 5 = International organization
88. ADVISORY BODIES
5 . = Missing data
98 1 = Absence of sovereignty
28 2 = Absent
14 3 = Relatives of executive
2 4 = Favorites of executive
- 5 = Secret society
13 6 = Subordinate groups
3 7 = Hereditary
23 8 = Subordinate functionaries
89. JUDICIARY
3 . = Missing data
103 1 = Absent
6 2 = Not local
49 3 = Executive
23 4 = Appointed by executive
1 5 = Priesthood
1 6 = Hereditary
90. POLICE
6 . = Missing data
124 1 = Not specialized
4 2 = Incipient specialization
4 3 = Retainers of chiefs
6 4 = Military
42 5 = Specialized
91. ADMINISTRATIVE HIERARCHY
3 . = Missing data
98 1 = Absent
7 2 = Popular Assemblies
8 3 = Heads of kin groups
38 4 = Heads of decentralized territorial divisions
31 5 = Heads of centralized territorial divisions
1 6 = Part of centralized system
93. POLITICAL POWER- MOST IMPORTANT SOURCE
3 . = Missing data
90 0 = Direct subsistence production
11 1 = Warfare wealth
3 2 = Tribute or taxes
13 3 = Slaves
20 4 = Contributions of free citizens
12 5 = Large land-holdings
14 6 = Political office
6 7 = Foreign Commerce
11 8 = Capitalistic enterprises
3 9 = Priestly services
DIVISION OF LABOR
Murdock, George P., and Caterina Provost. 1973. Factors in the Division
of Labor by Sex: A Cross-Cultural Analysis. ETHNOLOGY 12:203-225.
Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors.
FOOD COLLECTION
99. VEGETAL
100. EGGS, INSECTS, AND/OR SMALL LAND FAUNA
101. SHELLFISH/SMALL AQUATIC FAUNA
102. HONEY
103. FOWLING
104. FISHING
105. TRAPPING
106. LARGE LAND FAUNA
107. LARGE AQUATIC FAUNA
Number of Cases for Each Variable:
99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107
. = Task Present, sex ? 34 48 22 20 2 10 1 0 2
-1 = No data on task 7 53 24 80 29 4 15 6 9
0 = Task absent 10 18 85 38 16 29 20 36 129
1 = Males exclusively 6 27 11 39 131 83 136 139 48
2 = Males predominantly 4 3 4 5 5 45 12 5 0
3 = Equally 18 9 1 2 3 8 1 0 0
4 = Females predominant 42 13 12 0 0 5 1 0 0
5 = Females exclusively 65 15 27 2 0 2 0 0 0
FOOD PRODUCTION
108. LAND CLEARANCE
109. SOIL PREPARATION
110. PLANTING
111. CROP TENDING
112. HARVESTING
113. SMALL DOMESTIC ANIMALS
114. LARGE DOMESTIC ANIMALS
115. MILKING
Number of Cases for Each Variable:
108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115
. = Task Present, sex ? 1 1 0 3 0 70 10 10
-1 = No data on task 2 2 1 4 1 6 2 1
0 = Task absent 44 49 44 48 44 13 76 127
1 = Males exclusively 95 66 27 22 10 19 54 15
2 = Males predominantly 34 27 35 23 37 8 24 2
3 = Equally 6 14 33 24 34 14 14 8
4 = Females predominantly 3 17 26 30 34 12 3 2
5 = Females exclusively 1 10 20 32 26 44 3 21
FOOD PREPARATION
116. VEGETAL
117. BUTCHERING
118. PRESERVATION
119. DRINKS
120. DAIRY
121. COOKING
Number of Cases for Each Variable:
116 117 118 119 120 121
. = Task Present, sex ? 2 16 64 42 20 1
-1 = No data on task 8 19 25 16 8 1
0 = Task absent 2 8 31 37 130 0
1 = Males exclusively 3 122 18 15 4 0
2 = Males predominantly 1 9 2 3 0 2
3 = Equally 4 4 3 4 0 2
4 = Females predominantly 21 4 3 4 0 63
5 = Females exclusively 145 4 40 65 24 117
EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES
122. MINING/QUARRYING
123. FUEL GATHERING
124. LUMBERING
125. WATER FETCHING
Number of Cases for Each Variable:
122 123 124 125
. = Task Present, sex ? 6 11 16 25
-1 = No data on task 39 7 17 1
0 = Task absent 106 1 14 0
1 = Males exclusively 31 25 135 4
2 = Males predominantly 1 12 4 4
3 = Equally 2 12 0 8
4 = Females predominantly 0 24 0 13
5 = Females exclusively 1 94 0 131
INTERMEDIATE PROCESSING
126. SKINS
127. SPINNING
128. LOOM WEAVING
129. SMELTING
Number of Cases for Each Variable:
126 127 128 129
. = Task Present, sex ? 44 9 1 0
-1 = No data on task 13 30 16 24
0 = Task absent 48 56 81 125
1 = Males exclusively 39 7 24 37
2 = Males predominantly 4 3 0 0
3 = Equally 2 4 6 0
4 = Females predominantly 5 5 8 0
5 = Females exclusively 31 72 50 0
MANUFACTURING
130. MAT-MAKING
131. NET-MAKING
132. BASKET-MAKING
133. ROPE OR CORDAGE
134. LEATHER
135. CLOTHING
Number of Cases for Each Variable:
130 131 132 133 134 135
. = Task Present, sex ? 31 45 19 56 32 5
-1 = No data on task 23 31 16 16 23 23
0 = Task absent 29 45 21 3 57 36
1 = Males exclusively 30 42 37 62 35 16
2 = Males predominantly 4 2 9 7 3 4
3 = Equally 9 5 15 18 2 11
4 = Females predominantly 5 1 18 5 5 13
5 = Females exclusively 55 15 51 19 29 78
MANUFACTURING (Cont.)
136. POTTERY
137. WOOD
138. BONE
139. STONE
140. METAL
141. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Number of Cases for Each Variable:
136 137 138 139 140 141
. = Task Present, sex ? 6 17 44 31 0 74
-1 = No data on task 14 4 46 43 7 16
0 = Task absent 61 1 14 39 93 8
1 = Males exclusively 14 159 71 67 85 83
2 = Males predominantly 5 3 7 0 1 3
3 = Equally 6 1 2 6 0 1
4 = Females predominantly 6 1 0 0 0 0
5 = Females exclusively 74 0 2 0 0 1
MISCELLANEOUS
142. FIRE
143. LAUNDERING
144. BODILY MUTILATION
145. BONE-SETTING/SURGERY
146. BURDEN CARRYING
147. BOAT-BUILDING
148. HOUSE-BUILDING
Number of Cases for Each Variable:
142 143 144 145 146 147 148
. = Task Present, sex ? 96 9 45 17 6 5 6
-1 = No data on task 1 59 22 88 31 11 1
0 = Task absent 3 52 13 37 3 79 1
1 = Males exclusively 40 5 36 34 18 84 105
2 = Males predominantly 6 0 4 6 12 3 30
3 = Equally 16 4 48 4 46 3 14
4 = Females predominant 4 8 6 0 34 0 9
5 = Females exclusively 20 49 12 0 36 1 20
CULTURAL COMPLEXITY
Murdock, George P., and Caterina Provost. 1971. Measurement of Cultural
Complexity. ETHNOLOGY 12:379-392.
Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors.
149. SCALE 1: WRITING AND RECORDS
73 1 = None
49 2 = Mnemonic devices
21 3 = Non-written records
12 4 = True writing; no records
31 5 = True writing; records
150. SCALE 2: FIXITY OF RESIDENCE
28 1 = Nomadic
21 2 = Semi-nomadic
20 3 = Semi-sedentary
15 4 = Sedentary; impermanent
102 5 = Sedentary
151. SCALE 3: AGRICULTURE
38 1 = None
17 2 = 10% food supply
11 3 = 10%; secondary
63 4 = Primary; not intensive
57 5 = Primary; intensive
152. SCALE 4: URBANIZATION
56 1 = fewer than 100 persons
43 2 = 100-199 persons
33 3 = 200-399 persons
30 4 = 400-999 persons
24 5 = 1000 persons
153. SCALE 5: TECHNOLOGICAL SPECIALIZATION
39 1 = No pottery, looms, metalworking
27 2 = Pottery only
31 3 = Loom weaving but not metalworking
56 4 = Metalworking, weavers or potters absent
33 5 = Smiths, weavers, potters
154. SCALE 6: LAND TRANSPORT
108 1 = Human only
42 2 = Pack animals
14 3 = Draft animals
11 4 = Animal-drawn vehicles
11 5 = Automotive vehicles
155. SCALE 7: MONEY
77 1 = None
14 2 = Domestically usable articles
43 3 = Alien currency
27 4 = Elementary forms
25 5 = True money
156. SCALE 8: DENSITY OF POPULATION
58 1 = less than 1 person/square mile
25 2 = 1-5 persons/square mile
28 3 = 5.1-25 persons/square mile
35 4 = 26-100 persons/square mile
40 5 = 100 persons/square mile
157. SCALE 9: POLITICAL INTEGRATION
11 1 = None
72 2 = Autonomous local communities
46 3 = 1 level above community
28 4 = 2 levels above community
29 5 = 3 levels above community
158. SCALE 10: SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
65 1 = Egalitarian
52 2 = Hereditary slavery
19 3 = 2 social classes, no castes/slavery
20 4 = 2 social classes, castes/slavery
30 5 = 3 social classes or castes, with or without slavery
SEXUAL ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES
Broude, Gwen, and Sarah J. Greene. 1976. Cross-Cultural Codes on Twenty
Sexual Attitudes and Practices. ETHNOLOGY 15:409-429.
Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors.
165. PREMARITAL SEX ATTITUDES- FEMALE
56 . = Missing data
30 1 = Expected
28 2 = Tolerated
22 3 = Mildly disapproved
11 4 = Moderately disapproved
4 5 = Disallowed
35 6 = Strongly disapproved
166. FREQUENCY OF PREMARITAL SEX- MALE
84 . = Missing data
60 1 = Universal
18 2 = Moderate
11 3 = Occasional
13 4 = Uncommon
167. FREQUENCY OF PREMARITAL SEX- FEMALE
77 . = Missing data
51 1 = Universal
19 2 = Moderate
16 3 = Occasional
23 4 = Uncommon
169. EXTRAMARITAL SEX
77 . = Missing data
13 1 = Single standard- both allowed
48 2 = Double standard- husband only
24 3 = Double standard- both forbidden, women punished more
24 4 = Single standard- both condemned equally
172. WIFE-SHARING
83 . = Missing data
4 1 = For any reason
11 2 = Vis-à-vis specific group men
5 3 = Vis-à-vis specific man
7 4 = Occasionally for sex gratification
3 5 = For husband's economic benefit
11 6 = Aside from sex gratification
62 7 = None
CLIMATE DATA FROM WEATHER STATIONS
Whiting, John W. M. (New Codes: Not Previously Published)
These codes are taken from Climate maps, for weather stations closest to
the time and place of each societal focus.
186. MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE (EC)
99 = Missing data
-16 = Min
29 = Max
187. HOTTEST MONTH MEAN TEMPERATURE (EC)
99 = Missing data
3 = Min
46 = Max
188. COLDEST MONTH MEAN TEMPERATURE (EC)
99 = Missing data
-28 = Min
44 = Max
189. MEAN ANNUAL PRECIPITATION (mm)
99 = Missing data
0 = Min
4819 = Max
192. HIGHEST PRECIPITATION IN WETTEST MONTH (mm)
99 = Missing data
0 = Min
670 = Max
193. LOWEST PRECIPITATION IN DRIEST MONTH (mm)
99 = Missing data
0 = Min
295 = Max
196. NUMBER OF DRY MONTHS
99 = Missing data
76 0 = None
8 1 =
13 2 =
10 3 =
19 4 =
13 5 =
15 6 =
10 7 =
8 8 =
1 9 =
3 10 =
1 11 =
9 12 =
199. NUMBER OF FROST MONTHS
99 = Missing data
158 0 = None
1 1 =
- 2 =
- 3 =
- 4 =
1 5 =
1 6 =
7 7 =
3 8 =
6 9 =
2 10 =
5 11 =
2 12 =
ETHNOGRAPHIC ATLAS PART 1
Murdock, George P. 1962-1971. Serial Installments in ETHNOLOGY.
Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors.
200. REGION
28 1 = Africa Exclusive of Madagascar and the Sahara
28 2 = Circum-Mediterranean North Africa, Europe, Turkey,
Caucasus, Semitic Near East
34 3 = East Eurasia including Madagascar and Islands in Indian Ocean
31 4 = Insular Pacific including Australia, Indonesia, Formosa,
Philippines
33 5 = North America indigenous societies to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec
32 6 = South America including Antilles, Yucatan, Central America
208. MODE OF MARRIAGE
0 99 = Missing data
71 1 = Bride-Price or -Wealth, to bride's family
24 2 = Bride-Service, to bride's family
16 3 = Token Bride-price
15 4 = Gift Exchange, reciprocal
9 5 = Sister or Female Relative Exchanged for Bride
42 6 = Absence of Consideration
9 7 = Dowry, to bride from her family
146 9 = No Alternative
221. LARGEST PATRILINEAL KIN GROUP
223. LARGEST MATRILINEAL KIN GROUP
Patrilineal Matrilineal
Lrgst Exog. Lrgst Exog.
. = Missing Data 1 1
1 = None 104 144
2 = Exogamous Group 0 3
3 = Lineages in a Single Community 18 7
4 = Sibs (Lineages in Mult.i Communities) 42 15
5 = Phratries (Maximally Extended Sibs) 15 5
6 = Moieties 6 11
225. COGNATIC KIN GROUPS
1 99 = Missing Data
48 1 = Bilateral descent
27 2 = Kindreds: ego-oriented bilateral kin-groups
0 3 = Ambilineal descent: lacking true ramages
7 4 = Ramages: ancestor oriented ambilineal groups
2 5 = Exogamous ramages
4 6 = Quasi-lineages: filiation based, not descent
97 9 = Unilineal descent groups
238. HIGH GODS: Defined as a spiritual being who is believed to have
created all reality and/or to be its ultimate governor, even though
his/her sole act was to create other spirits who, in turn, created
or control the natural world.
18 . = Missing data
68 1 = Absent or not reported
47 2 = Present but not active in human affairs
13 3 = Present and active in human affairs but not supportive
of human morality
40 4 = Present, active, and specifically supportive of human morality
239. GAMES: The code below can also be expressed in a semi-order or
partial Guttman scale, as there are five latent classes or dominant
scale types: for P C S, these
are - - - + - - + + - + - + + + +
14 . = Missing data
12 1 = None of the three types
64 2 = Physical skill
1 3 = Chance
4 4 = Strategy
47 5 = Skill and chance
22 6 = Skill and strategy
0 7 = Chance and strategy
22 8 = All
241. MALE GENITAL MUTILATIONS
5 . = Missing data
131 0 = Absent
5 1 = Within first two months after birth
1 2 = Two months to two years
5 3 = Two to five years
16 4 = Six to ten years
17 5 = 11 to 15 years
2 6 = 16 to 25 years
0 7 = 25 to 50 years
1 8 = After 50 years
3 9 = Normal age unclear
242. SEGREGATION OF ADOLESCENT BOYS
29 . = Missing data
108 1 = Absence
19 2 = Partial
8 3 = Complete, with relatives outside nuclear family
4 4 = Complete, with non-relatives
18 5 = Complete, with peers
RULE OR PRACTICE FOR INHERITANCE
278. INHERITANCE OF REAL PROPERTY (LAND)
279. INHERITANCE OF MOVABLE PROPERTY
278 279
Land Movables
. = Missing data 31 34
1 = Absence of individual property rights or rules 59 21
2 = Matrilineal (sister's sons) 4 5
3 = Other matrilineal heirs (e.g., younger brothers) 9 9
4 = Children, with daughters receiving less 12 14
5 = Children, equally for both sexes 9 22
6 = Other patrilineal heirs (e.g., younger brothers) 8 9
7 = Patrilineal (sons) 54 72
DISTRIBUTION OF INHERITANCE AMONG INDIVIDUALS OF SAME CATEGORY
280. INHERITANCE OF REAL PROPERTY
281. INHERITANCE OF MOVABLE PROPERTY
280 281
Land Movables
99 = Missing data or absence of rights 91 55
1 = Equal or relatively equal 54 86
2 = Exclusively or predominantly to the one adjudged
best qualified
6 6
3 = Ultimogeniture (to the junior individual) 4 5
4 = Primogeniture (to the senior individual) 28 27
9 = Missing data Note: Change 9 to 99 3 7
285. PREVAILING TYPE OF DWELLING: WALL MATERIAL
65 . = Missing data
12 1 = Stone, stucco, concrete, or fired brick
19 2 = Plaster, mud and dung, or wattle and daub
33 3 = Wood, including logs, planks, poles, bamboo, or shingles
1 4 = Bark
1 5 = Hides or skin
6 6 = Felt, cloth, or other fabrics
17 7 = Mats, latticework, or wattle
14 8 = Grass, leaves, or other thatch
17 9 = Adobe, clay, or dried brick
0 10)= Open walls, including temporary screens
*)= Walls indistinguishable from roof
* Note: disaggregate 9 and 10
287. PREVAILING TYPE OF DWELLING: ROOFING MATERIALS
10 . = Missing data
2 1 = Stone or slate, or tile or fired brick
3 2 = Plaster, clay, mud and dung, or wattle and daub
10 3 = Wood, including logs, planks, poles, bamboo, or shingles
6 4 = Bark
5 5 = Hides or skin
5 6 = Felt, cloth, or other fabric
9 7 = Mats
118 8 = Grass, leaves, brush, or other thatch
18 9 = Earth or turf
10)= Ice or snow (combined with 9)
* Note: disaggregate 9 and 10
TRAITS INCULCATED IN CHILDHOOD
Barry, Herbert,III, Lili Josephson, Edith Lauer, and Catherine Marshall. 1976.
Traits Inculcated in Childhood: Cross-Cultural Codes 5. ETHNOLOGY 15:83-114.
Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors.
294. Fortitude: Early Boy
295. Fortitude: Early Girl
296. Fortitude: Late Boy
297. Fortitude: Late Girl
Early Late
Boy Girl Boy Girl
. = Missing data 46 55 31 41
0 = no inculcation, or opposite trait 0 0 0 0
1 = 0 1 0 0
2 = 17 19 3 5
3 = 16 17 5 11
4 = 11 13 11 9
5 = moderately strong inculcation 61 60 40 50
6 = 24 15 49 44
7 = 3 1 14 12
8 = 6 3 24 12
9 = 2 2 8 12
extremely strong inculcation 0 0 1 0
298. Aggression: Early Boy
299. Aggression: Early Girl
300. Aggression: Late Boy
301. Aggression: Late Girl
Early Late
Boy Girl Boy Girl
. = Missing data 53 68 38 58
0 = no inculcation, or opposite trait 0 0 0 0
1 = 6 7 4 5
2 = 25 30 9 16
3 = 14 15 11 16
4 = 7 10 9 10
5 = moderately strong inculcation 40 30 40 38
6 = 28 17 43 26
7 = 1 2 5 5
8 = 8 5 19 10
9 = 3 1 6 1
extremely strong inculcation 1 1 2 1
302. Competitiveness: Early Boy
303. Competitiveness: Early Girl
304. Competitiveness: Late Boy
305. Competitiveness: Late Girl
Early Late
Boy Girl Boy Girl
. = Missing data 75 80 51 60
0 = no inculcation, or opposite trait 6 6 5 5
1 = 0 0 0 0
2 = 21 21 15 17
3 = 15 15 18 16
4 = 9 9 9 10
5 = moderately strong inculcation 38 35 42 44
6 = 18 18 30 25
7 = 2 1 2 1
8 = 0 0 11 7
9 = strong inculcation 2 1 3 1
306. Self-reliance: Early Boy
307. Self-reliance: Early Girl
308. Self-reliance: Late Boy
309. Self-reliance: Late Girl
Early Late
Boy Girl Boy Girl
. = Missing data 31 33 26 33
0 = no inculcation, or opposite trait 1 2 1 1
1 = 7 8 4 5
2 = 39 48 6 10
3 = 27 29 5 15
4 = 9 11 5 10
5 = moderately strong inculcation 42 35 34 48
6 = 16 12 39 34
7 = 2 4 6 6
8 = 10 4 48 19
9 = 2 0 11 4
* extremely strong inculcation [10:] 0 0 1 1
310. Achievement: Early Boy
311. Achievement: Early Girl
312. Achievement: Late Boy
313. Achievement: Late Girl
Early Late
Boy Girl Boy Girl
. = Missing data 40 50 24 33
0 = no inculcation or opposite trait 1 1 0 0
1 = 3 2 1 2
2 = 49 49 14 7
3 = 23 24 16 16
4 = 4 4 8 8
5 = moderately strong inculcation 44 36 46 51
6 = 17 17 47 45
7 = 1 1 3 4
8 = 3 2 22 18
9 = strong inculcation 1 0 5 2
314. Industry: Early Boy
315. Industry: Early Girl
316. Industry: Late Boy
317. Industry: Late Girl
Early Late
Boy Girl Boy Girl
. = Missing data 20 21 11 11
0 = no inculcation or opposite trait 4 3 0 0
1 = 10 3 1 0
2 = 83 62 10 4
3 = 28 35 17 11
4 = 14 13 16 6
5 = moderately strong inculcation 20 35 69 41
6 = 6 14 37 63
7 = 0 0 3 8
8 = 1 0 19 38
9 = strong inculcation 0 0 3 4
318. Responsibility: Early Boy
319. Responsibility: Early Girl
320. Responsibility: Late Boy
321. Responsibility: Late Girl
Early Late
Boy Girl Boy Girl
. = Missing data 35 36 25 28
0 = no inculcation or opposite trait 11 4 3 0
1 = 8 5 0 0
2 = 73 63 15 3
3 = 23 32 20 11
4 = 6 5 15 12
5 = moderately strong inculcation 21 33 49 50
6 = 8 7 37 51
7 = 0 0 2 3
8 = 1 1 19 28
9 = strong inculcation 0 0 1 0
322. Obedience: Early Boy
323. Obedience: Early Girl
324. Obedience: Late Boy
325. Obedience: Late Girl
Early Late
Boy Girl Boy Girl
. = Missing data 26 25 24 24
0 = no inculcation or opposite trait 2 - 1 -
1 = 3 3 1 -
2 = 27 23 15 10
3 = 11 13 10 10
4 = 14 11 12 11
5 = moderately strong inculcation 45 44 45 45
6 = 27 31 33 36
7 = 2 2 2 3
8 = 22 25 32 32
9 = 4 5 8 11
extremely strong inculcation [10:] 3 4 3 4
326. Self-restraint: Early Boy
327. Self-restraint: Early Girl
328. Self-restraint: Late Boy
329. Self-restraint: Late Girl
Early Late
Boy Girl Boy Girl
. = Missing data 52 53 51 54
0 = no inculcation or opposite trait 0 0 0 0
1 = 6 7 1 1
2 = 38 32 19 16
3 = 35 31 19 16
4 = 5 7 12 11
5 = moderately strong inculcation 29 34 35 45
6 = 13 14 26 26
7 = 0 0 2 1
8 = 8 7 20 13
9 = strong inculcation 0 1 1 3
330. Sexual restraint: Early Boy
331. Sexual restraint: Early Girl
332. Sexual restraint: Late Boy
333. Sexual restraint: Late Girl
Early Late
Boy Girl Boy Girl
. = Missing data 30 32 22 21
0 = no inculcation or opposite trait 1 1 0 0
1 = 14 11 7 4
2 = 67 57 41 32
3 = 22 19 7 18
4 = 14 14 25 25
5 = moderately strong inculcation 30 32 41 24
6 = 7 14 15 27
7 = 0 1 2 6
8 = 1 5 6 18
9 = 0 0 0 5
extremely strong inculcation [10:] 0 0 0 6
334. Generosity
82 . = Missing data
0 0 = no inculcation or opposite trait
1 1 =
4 2 =
6 3 =
4 4 =
24 5 = moderately strong inculcation
31 6 =
2 7 =
27 8 =
4 9 =
1 extremely strong inculcation
335. Trust
48 . = Missing data
1 0 = no inculcation or opposite trait
6 1 =
19 2 =
5 3 =
15 4 =
34 5 = moderately strong inculcation
18 6 =
11 7 =
25 8 =
3 9 =
1 extremely strong inculcation [10:]
336. Honesty
76 . = Missing data
1 0 = no inculcation or opposite trait
5 1 =
18 2 =
15 3 =
12 4 =
28 5 = moderately strong inculcation
16 6 =
5 7 =
8 8 =
1 9 =
1 extremely strong inculcation [10:]
AGENTS AND TECHNIQUES OF CHILD TRAINING
Barry, Herbert, III, Lili Josephson, Edith Lauer, and Catherine Marshall.
1977. Agents and Techniques for Child Training: Cross-Cultural Codes 6.
ETHNOLOGY 16:191-230.
Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors.
353. Sex of Parents in Residence: Early Boy
354. Sex of Parents in Residence: Early Girl
355. Sex of Parents in Residence: Late Boy
356. Sex of Parents in Residence: Late Girl
Early Late
Boys Girls Boys Girls
99 = Missing data 4 4 28 18
1 = Male exclusively 0 0 9 0
2 = Male predominantly 2 1 1 1
3 = Both sexes equally 135 135 124 127
4 = Female predominantly 22 21 13 16
5 = Female exclusively 23 25 11 24
385. Sex of Parental Authority Figures: Early Boy
386. Sex of Parental Authority Figures: Early Girl
387. Sex of Parental Authority Figures: Late Boy
388. Sex of Parental Authority Figures: Late Girl
Early Late
Boys Girls Boys Girls
99 = Missing data 14 13 39 26
1 = Male exclusively 36 17 43 17
2 = Male predominantly 66 58 53 50
3 = Both sexes equally 55 59 43 52
4 = Female predominantly 8 20 3 20
5 = Female exclusively 7 19 5 21
389. Sex of Principal Non-Parental Authority Figures: Early Boy
390. Sex of Principal Non-Parental Authority Figures: Early Girl
391. Sex of Principal Non-Parental Authority Figures: Late Boy
392. Sex of Principal Non-Parental Authority Figures: Late Girl
Early Late
Boys Girls Boys Girls
99 = Missing data 73 78 65 112
1 = Male exclusively 66 48 80 36
2 = Male predominantly 4 5 6 5
3 = Both sexes equally 37 35 29 14
4 = Female predominantly 2 2 2 4
5 = Female exclusively 4 18 4 15
417. Sex of Parental Educators: Early Boys
418. Sex of Parental Educators: Early Girls
419. Sex of Parental Educators: Late Boys
420. Sex of Parental Educators: Late Girls
Early Late
Boys Girls Boys Girls
99 = Missing data 23 16 31 26
1 = Male exclusively 58 4 117 3
2 = Male predominantly 27 2 18 1
3 = Both sexes equally 51 40 14 11
4 = Female predominantly 17 20 3 12
5 = Female exclusively 10 104 3 133
429. Use of Example: Early Boys
430. Use of Example: Early Girls
431. Use of Example: Late Boys
432. Use of Example: Late Girls
Early Late
Boys Girls Boys Girls
99 = Missing data 34 33 33 31
2 = Children's activities differ from adults
are not expected to behave like them 0 0 0 0
3 = 0 0 0 0
4 = 0 0 0 0
5 = Children are expected to do things more
or less by example 25 24 20 20
6 = 22 23 23 23
7 = 2 2 2
8 = Children frequently shown example;
considered very important in socializing child 79 79 83 84
9 = 21 22 22 23
Example given as most important method
of education, or adults are constantly
showing children how to do things. 3 3 3 3
441. Teasing: Early Boys
442. Teasing: Early Girls
443. Teasing: Late Boys
444. Teasing: Late Girls
Shaming and exposure to ridicule for misconduct:
Early Late
Boys Girls Boys Girls
99 = Missing data 85 85 73 74
2 = Teasing absent 9 8 5 5
3 = 8 10 8 9
4 = 4 4 4 4
5 = 34 33 39 38
6 = 24 23 31 30
7 = 2 2 2 2
8 = 19 20 23 23
9 = Teasing prevalent 1 1 1 1
445. Scolding: Early Boys
446. Scolding: Early Girls
447. Scolding: Late Boys
448. Scolding: Late Girls
Includes verbal reprimands, nagging, scolding for misbehavior:
Early Late
Boys Girls Boys Girls
99 = Missing data 76 74 71 69
0 = Scolding absent 2 2 2 1
1 = 3 2 1 1
2 = 11 13 8 9
3 = 8 7 8 7
4 = 9 9 11 11
5 = 54 54 51 51
6 = 15 16 19 21
7 = 1 1 0 0
8 = 7 8 13 14
9 = Harsh scolding 0 0 1 1
[10:] 0 0 1 1
449. Warning: Early Boys
450. Warning: Early Girls
451. Warning: Late Boys
452. Warning: Late Girls
Threats of punishment by supernatural beings or strangers.
Early Late
Boys Girls Boys Girls
99 = Missing data 87 87 86 87
0 = Warnings absent 1 1 1 0
1 = 0 0 1 1
2 = 4 4 5 5
3 = 3 3 4 4
4 = 4 4 4 4
5 = 29 29 32 32
6 = 38 38 36 36
7 = 1 1 1 1
8 = 14 14 11 11
9 = Warnings prevalent 5 5 5 5
453. Corporal Punishment: Early Boys
454. Corporal Punishment: Early Girls
455. Corporal Punishment: Late Boys
456. Corporal Punishment: Late Girls
Whipping and any other pain-inflicting treatment.
Early Late
Boys Girls Boys Girls
99 = Missing data 41 46 39 46
0 = Punishment absent 9 9 10 8
1 = 6 6 4 4
2 = 35 35 29 30
3 = 17 18 15 15
4 = 12 12 8 9
5 = 39 37 41 39
6 = 20 16 17 16
7 = 0 0 1 1
8 = 3 3 18 16
9 = Harsh Punishment 3 1 3 1
457. Ceremonies for Children: Early Boys
458. Ceremonies for Children: Early Girls
459. Ceremonies for Children: Late Boys
460. Ceremonies for Children: Late Girls
Included are those for first animal killed or first basket woven by
young child, or ceremonies like birthday parties or children's days.
Inclusion of children in cultural ceremonies justifies only moderate s
cores.
Early Late
Boys Girls Boys Girls
99 = Missing data 54 62 40 55
0 = Ceremonies absent 3 4 1 0
1 = 1 5 0 2
2 = 48 47 20 32
3 = 20 22 18 25
4 = 6 5 5 9
5 = 38 26 61 42
6 = 13 11 32 13
7 = 0 0 1 0
8 = Ceremonies Prevalent 3 4 8 8
461. Gifts for Approved Behaviors: Early Boys
462. Gifts for Approved Behaviors: Early Girls
463. Gifts for Approved Behaviors: Late Boys
464. Gifts for Approved Behaviors: Late Girls
Early Late
Boys Girls Boys Girls
99 = Missing data 45 50 41 43
2 = No material rewards for appr. behavior 24 20 17 17
3 = 18 22 19 23
4 = 8 8 8 8
5 = 65 61 72 66
6 = 22 19 23 21
7 = 0 0 0 0
8 = Material rewards for approved behaviors, 4 6 6 8
e.g., gifts or conferring of privileges.
465. Permissiveness: Early Boys
466. Permissiveness: Early Girls
467. Permissiveness: Late Boys
468. Permissiveness: Late Girls
Early Late
Boys Girls Boys Girls
99 = Missing data 17 19 18 18
0 = Harsh socialization by parents or other 1 1 1 1
authority figures with severe punishment
1 = 1 1 5 7
2 = Generally harsh treatment, not extreme 4 7 6 8
3 = 9 7 10 13
4 = 12 17 23 31
5 = Generally moderate or balanced degree 31 37 52 61
of both harshness and permissiveness
6 = 37 41 32 22
7 = 31 29 14 9
8 = Generally indulgent, not extreme 28 19 15 12
9 = 10 6 10 4
Generally lenient and indulgent permissiveness,
minimal punishment or expression of
disapproval [10:] 5 2 2 1
469. Affection: Early Boys
470. Affection: Early Girls
471. Affection: Late Boys
472. Affection: Late Girls
Attention and positive interest expressed toward child.
Early Late
Boys Girls Boys Girls
99 = Missing data 31 31 32 32
0 = Minimal expression of affection, 0 0 0 0
attention, positive interest in child
1 = 0 1 0 1
2 = Generally low expression of affection 6 9 10 13
and attention
3 = 3 3 4 4
4 = 16 19 20 24
5 = Moderate or sporadic expression of 40 35 43 37
affection and attention
6 = 43 41 44 42
7 = 19 21 17 19
8 = Consistent, occasional strong expression 24 22 16 14
9 = 4 4 0 0
473. Evaluation by Society: Early Boys
474. Evaluation by Society: Early Girls
475. Evaluation by Society: Late Boys
476. Evaluation by Society: Late Girls
Degree to which children are desired and valued:
Early Late
Boys Girls Boys Girls
99 = Missing data 14 14 14 14
0 = Children are viewed indifferently or 0 0 0 0
as a liability by society and local community
1 = 0 1 0 1
2 = Only slight, sporadic expression of 2 7 2 6
valuation of children
3 = 3 9 3 9
4 = 11 23 9 21
5 = Moderate or occasionally strong 39 30 39 35
expression of value of children
6 = 46 50 48 49
7 = 32 25 32 26
8 = Strong, but no extreme valuation 26 18 27 17
of children
9 = 13 9 12 8
Intense, repeated expression of cultural
valuation for children[10:] 1 0 1 0
ADOLESCENT INITIATION CEREMONIES
Schlegel, Alice, and Herbert Barry, III. 1979. Adolescent Initiation
Ceremonies: A Cross-Cultural Code. ETHNOLOGY 18:199-210.
Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors.
529. Occurrence: Boys
530. Occurrence: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent for both boys and girls 80 81
1 = Absent for specified sex only 39 17
2 = Present 63 85
531. Time: Boys
532. Time: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent 120 100
2 = before genital maturation 13 9
3 = at first signs of genital
maturation 18 11
4 = at genital maturation 6 57
5 = within one year after genital 7 5
maturation
6 = later (up to 18 years) 8 1
533. Number of Concurrent Initiates: Boys
534. Number of Concurrent Initiates: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent 119 99
2 = Single 29 73
3 = Small group 7 6
4 = Large group 27 5
535. Duration of Ceremony: Boys
536. Duration of Ceremony: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent 119 99
2 = Short 28 36
3 = Medium 7 21
4 = Long 28 27
537. Number of Participants: Boys
538. Number of Participants: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent 121 99
2 = Immediate family 7 40
3 = Local group 25 29
4 = Large group 29 15
539. Sexes of Participants: Boys
540. Sexes of Participants: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent 119 99
2 = Both sexes 12 11
3 = Partially limited to same 17 28
sex as initiates
4 = Exclusively same sex as initiates 34 45
541. Primary Physical Components: Boys
542. Primary Physical Components: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent 119 99
2 = None 6 11
3 = Manipulations or activities 17 45
4 = Pain other than genital operation 20 21
5 = Genital operation 13 7
6 = Genital operation and other pain 7 0
543. Secondary Physical Components: Boys
544. Secondary Physical Components: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent 119 99
2 = Neither manipulations nor
activities 15 20
3 = Activities 14 10
4 = Manipulation 9 26
5 = Both manipulations and activities 25 28
545. Primary Cognitive or Performance Components: Boys
546. Primary Cognitive or Performance Components: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent 119 99
2 = Symbolic only 20 15
3 = Learning skills, sharing secrets, 3 3
or other
4 = Observing taboos 8 1
5 = Seclusion 7 9
6 = Both seclusion and observing taboos 18 54
7 = Fear 7 2
547. Secondary Cognitive or Performance Components: Boys
548. Secondary Cognitive or Performance Components: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent 118 100
2 = Neither learning skills nor sharing 43 60
secrets
3 = Sharing secrets 8 2
4 = Learning skills 4 11
5 = Both learning skills and sharing 9 10
secrets
549. Primary Emic Interpretations: Boys
550. Primary Emic Interpretations: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent 119 99
2 = None 4 5
3 = Status marker, physical change, or 41 75
behavior change
4 = Spiritual change 11 2
5 = Death-rebirth 7 2
551. Secondary Emic Interpretations: Boys
552. Secondary Emic Interpretations: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent 118 100
2 = No status marker 8 8
3 = General status marker 17 25
4 = Status marker for adolescence 14 12
or youth
5 = Status marker for full adulthood 25 38
553. Tertiary Emic Interpretations: Boys
554. Tertiary Emic Interpretations: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent 118 100
2 = Neither physical nor behavior
change 31 48
3 = Behavior change 10 12
4 = Physical change 12 16
5 = Both physical and behavior change 11 7
555. Primary Social Consequences: Boys
556. Primary Social Consequences: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent 118 100
2 = None 19 32
3 = Familial integration, familial 14 20
independence, or other
4 = Heterosexual intercourse 8 25
5 = Same-sex bonding 17 3
6 = Both same-sex bonding and 6 3
heterosexual intercourse
557. Secondary Social Consequences: Boys
558. Secondary Social Consequences: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent 118 100
2 = None 36 57
3 = Other 6 8
4 = Familial independence 13 9
5 = Familial integration 9 9
559. Principal Focus: Boys
560. Principal Focus: Girls
Boys Girls
. = Missing data 4 3
0 = Absent 120 111
2 = Fertility 11 34
3 = Sexuality 10 18
4 = Valor 6 1
5 = Wisdom 7 1
6 = Responsibility 26 23
7 = Other 2 7
REPRODUCTIVE RITUALS
Paige, Karen Paige and Jeffrey Paige. 1981. THE POLITICS OF REPRODUCTIVE
RITUALS. University of California Press. These data are reprinted with
permission of the author and the publisher. (c) University of California
Press.
Paige and Paige (1981: 67-69) took every even society from the standard
sample, substituting adjacent societies if the ethnographic materials were
more abundant (1 for ?, 3 for 4, 13 for ?, 19 for 20, 23 for 24, 29 for 30,
31 for 32, 41 for 40?, 53 for 54, 57 for ?, 65 for 66, 69 for ?, 79 for 80,
81 for 82, 85 for 86, 89 for 90, 91 for 92, 97 for ?, 111 for 112, 105 for ?,
121 for 120?, 123 for 122?, 127 for 128, 129 for ?, 133 for 132?, 137 for ?, 1
41 for 142, 145 for 146, 151 for 152, 157 for ?, 159 for 160, 161 for ?,
165 for ?, 169 for 168?, 173 for ?, 177 for 178). They added substitutes from
their pretest, some of which substituted for even numbered standard sample
societies: Lamba, Chenchu for 60 Gond, Baiga for 62 Santal, Tungus, Murngin
for 88 Tobelorese?, Kiwai, Wogeo, Ifaluk, Kurtatchi, Ontong Javanese, Lau for 1
02 Mbau Fijians, Kwakiutl, Hupa for 134 Yurok, Sanpoil for 150 Havasupai,
Navaho, Tarasco, Witoto. It is not clear who were substitutes for the 78
Nicobar and 144 Huron. They eliminated peasants (38 Bogo, 50 Basques, 76 Thai,
116 Koreans, 154 Popoluca, 172 Aymara), and large states (such as the 54
Russians, 56 Armenians, 66 Mongols, 82 Negri Sembilan, 114 Chinese, 146 Natchez,
and 160 Haitians). This left 91 societies coded for the standard sample. Their
final sample of 108, after eliminating six peasant societies, includes 17 coded
substitutes not in the standard sample: the latter are not included here with
the standard sample codes.
561. Menarcheal Ceremonies
99 99 = Missing data
44 1 = Absent if onset of menstruation not marked by special
public ritual
43 2 = Present if onset of menstruation associated with either
elaborate or limited rites
562. Circumcision
95 99 = Missing data
69 1 = Superincision, or subincision, or absent
22 2 = Circumcision
563. Maternal Restrictions
98 99 = Missing Data
42 1 = Absent
46 2 = Present
564. Husband Involvement Scale (Couvade)
100 99 = Missing Data
51 1 = Minor Observance or informal
35 2 = Seclusion, or postpartum work taboo, or food taboo
NOTE: MARGINALS OFF +-2 FROM HERE ON
565. Menstrual Segregation
103 99 = Missing data
56 1 = Absent
27 2 = Present (either menstrual hut or structural
isolation is reported)
566. Male Segregation Practices
105 99 = Missing data
59 1 = Absent or Minor
22 2 = Present
573. Ritual Warfare
105 99 = Missing data
51 1 = Absent
30 2 = Present
THE RELATIVE STATUS OF WOMEN PART 1
Whyte, Martin K. 1978. Cross-Cultural Codes Dealing with the Relative
Status of Women. ETHNOLOGY 17:211-237. Compiled with permission of Ethnology
journal editors.
Only the odd numbered societies are coded in this study. Because of problems
of locating sources, the Khmer and Marquesans were coded for later time periods
than the pinpointed focus. The change in the focus was not sufficiently great
to merit deletion of the Marquesan codes, although they draw on Auxiliary
Primary Sources with a focal date of 1860 rather than 1800. As Divale has
shown, shifts of focus between studies will lower reliabilities somewhat, in
this case neglibly. Because the Khmer focus was changed from 1292 to 1860,
however, Whyte's codes have been changed to "missing data" to avoid erroneous
correlations.
Between 1987 and Dec 1989, codes for some of the even numbered societies, were
filled in as coded by undergraduates at U.C. Irvine. The symbol ":" was used
in the student codes to indicate coder disagreement.
Student codes were found to be less reliable than the original codes, however,
and the original Whyte codes were restored to the data disks in December 1989.
At this time it was also decided that "original author codes" should be the
exclusive standard for all further corrections. This enables the best use of
reliability tests were applicable.
576. Sex of Gods and Spirits and Other Super-Natural Beings
119 99 = Missing data
10 1 = All male
24 2 = Male are more numerous or more powerful
13 3 = Male are more numerous while power equal or male are
more powerful while numbers equal
20 4= Both and equal in numbers of power or women more
numerous while power equal, or women more powerful
while numbers equal
577. Mythical Founders of the Culture
121 99 = Missing Data
21 1 = All male
18 2 = Both sexes, but the role of men more important
19 3 = Both sexes, and the role of both sexes fairly equal
7 4 = Both sexes, but female role more important, or solely female
578. Sex of Shamans
113 99 = Missing Data
14 1 = All male
26 2 = Male more numerous, or more powerful
26 3 = Male more numerous while power equal, or male more
powerful while numbers equal, or about equal in both
7 4 = Female more powerful or more numerous or solely
female shamans
579. Sex of Reputed Witches
118 99 = Missing Data
16 1 = All male
21 2 = Male predominance in numbers or power
23 3 = Both, and equal in numbers or power
8 4 = Female predominance in numbers of power or only
female witches
580. Participation in Collective Religious Ceremonies and Rituals
113 99 = Missing Data
4 1 = Only males
36 2 = Both, but males more commonly or more prominently
28 3 = Both, and fairly equal participation
5 4 = Both, but women more prominent
581. Funeral or Burial Ceremonies Held
102 99 = Missing Data
11 1 = Only for males, or for both, but male more elaborate
73 2 = For both, and roughly equal
582. Intermediate or Local Political Leaders
112 99 = Missing Data
65 1 = Only males
7 2 = Both sexes, but males more numerous or more powerful
2 3 = Both sexes, and males more numerous while females
equally powerful or males more powerful while females
equally numerous
583. Leadership Posts in Kinship or Extended Family Units
124 99 = Missing Data
52 1 = Include men only
6 2 = Both, but men have more say and influence
4 3 = Both, with roughly equal influence
584. Participation in Collective Fighting and Warfare
116 99 = Missing Data
62 1 = Only men
8 2 = Both, but men do most fighting, women only aid
585. Proportional Contribution of Women to Overall Subsistence
94 99 = Missing Data
2 1 = Low
2 2 =
14 3 =
23 4 =
27 5 =
18 6 =
2 7 =
4 8 = High
586. Relative Time and Effort Expended on Subsistence Activities
98 99 = Missing Data
14 1 = Men clearly expend more
54 2 = Men and women expend roughly equal
20 3 = Women clearly expend more
587. Community-wide Exclusively Male Work Groups
108 99 = Missing Data
20 1 = None
44 2 = For one activity
14 3 = For two or more activities
588. Community-wide Exclusively Female Work Groups
114 99 = Missing data
45 1 = None
27 2 = For one or more activity
589. Degree of Segregation in Subsistence Activities
109 99 = Missing Data
15 1 = Men and women are sharply segregated
41 2 = Some segregation
21 3 = Little or no segregation in these activities
590. Inheritance of Property of Some Economic Value
105 99 = Missing Data
18 1 = Only males, or males except in unusual circumstances
27 2 = Both, but males have definite preference
22 3 = Roughly equal inheritance rights by sex
4 4 = Female preference, or exclusive female rights
591. Ownership or Control of the Use of Dwellings
114 99 = Missing Data
22 1 = Solely by men
12 2 = Most owned by men
25 3 = Equal ownership, or no preferential rights
13 4 = Most or all owned or controlled by women
592. Control of Disposal and Use of Fruits of the Labor Done Solely by Men
94 99 = Missing Data
30 1 = Men have virtually total say
41 2 = Men have predominant say, or no indication of preference
12 3 = Men and women have equal say
9 4 = Women have the predominant or total say
593. Control of Disposal and Use of Fruits of the Labor Done by Men and Women
105 99 = Missing Data
7 1 = Men have virtually total say
6 2 = Men have the predominant say
60 3 = Men and women have equal say, or no indication of preference
8 4 = Women have the predominant or total say
594. Control of Disposal and Use of Fruits of the Labor Done Solely by Women
94 99 = Missing Data
6 1 = Men have virtually total say or predominant say
10 2 = Men and women have equal say
62 3 = Women have the predominant say, or no indication
of preference
14 4 = Women have virtually total say
595. Domestic work
94 99 = Missing Data
47 1 = Males do virtually none
45 2 = Males do some, but mostly done by females
596. Double Standard in Regard to Premarital Sex
113 99 = Missing Data
32 1 = Yes
41 2 = No, equal restrictions on male and female
597. Double Standard in Regard to Extramarital Sex
111 99 = Missing Data
32 1 = Yes
41 2 = No, equal restrictions
2 3 = Male punished more severely for transgression
598. Extramarital Affairs of Married Women
100 99 = Missing Data
40 1 = Not allowed, and apparently rare
29 2 = Not allowed, but apparently not uncommon
17 3 = Allowed, or very common
599. Menstrual Taboos
124 99 = Missing Data
11 1 = No menstrual taboos
15 2 = Rule vs. intercourse with menstruating woman
9 3 = Personal restrictions on menstruants, e.g., dietary
3 4 = Stated belief that menstrual blood is dangerous to men
3 5 = A rule that menstruating women may not cook for men
6 6 = Menstruating women are segregated from men, perhaps
in a menstrual hut
15 7 = A rule that menstruating women may not have contact
with some male things, e.g., fishing gear, bows
600. The Role of Men and Women in Procreation Understood
93 99 = Missing Data
7 1 = Men are thought to play the more important role
80 2 = Belief in roughly equal contributions, or no
evidence of greater contribution by either sex
6 3 = Women are thought to play the more important role
601. Sexual Drives and Urges Understood
93 99 = Missing Data
17 1 = Men are thought to have stronger urges
71 2 = Belief that urges are roughly equal, or no
evidence of belief in greater urges by either sex
5 3 = Women are thought to have stronger urges
602. An Explicit View that Sexual Activity is Dangerous or Contaminating
118 99 = Missing Data
15 1 = Yes
53 2 = No
603. Role of the Older Generation in Arranging Marriages (1st Marriages
Only)
103 99 = Missing Data
13 1 = Males monopolize arrangement
33 2 = Both males and females participate, males have more say
28 3 = Both participate, and with roughly equal say
9 4 = Both males and females participate, females have more say
604. Voice of the Potential Bride and Groom in Marriage Decisions
106 99 = Missing Data
4 1 = Only the groom can initiate or refuse a match
27 2 = Groom has more ability to initiate or refuse
46 3 = Equal ability to initiate or refuse a match
3 4 = Bride has more ability to initiate or refuse
605. Marriage Payments
109 99 = Missing Data
5 1 = Woman exchange
36 2 = Substantial bride price
10 3 = Bride service
10 4 = Token bride price
10 5 = Gift exchange
6 6 = Dowry
607. Multiple Spouses
94 99 = Missing Data
71 1 = Only for males
4 2 = For both, but more commonly for males
15 3 = For neither
2 4 = For both, but more commonly for females
609. Relative Distances Moved by the Bride and Groom Away from
their Families of Orientation at First Marriage
102 99 = Missing Data
58 1 = The female moves farther away
7 2 = About equal distance
19 3 = The male moves farther away
610. Relative Ease of Initiating Divorce
93 99 = Missing Data
5 1 = Divorce is in theory only available to male
12 2 = Divorce is possible for both, but more difficult for female
72 3 = Divorce equally possible, no indication of bias
4 4 = Divorce is possible for both, but more difficult for male,
or in theory only available to female
611. Relative Ease of Remarriage
101 99 = Missing Data
21 1 = Possible for both, but fewer obstacles for men
64 2 = Equally possible for both men and women
612. Average Relative Age at First Marriage of Men and of Women
116 99 = Missing Data
2 1 = Women generally older
7 2 = Ages about equal
12 3 = Men 1-2 years older
18 4 = Men 3-4 years older
31 5 = Men more than 4 years older
613. Final Authority over the Care, Handling and Discipline of Infants
119 99 = Missing Data
12 1 = monopolized by males, or males have more say
11 2 = is divided roughly equally
21 3 = is divided, but females have more say
23 4 = is monopolized by females
614. Final Authority over the Up-bringing and Discipline of Post-infant
Unmarried Children Living in the Home
118 99 = Missing Data
11 1 = is virtually monopolized by males
14 2 = is divided, but males have more say
34 3 = is divided roughly equally
9 4 = is divided but females have more say, or final say is
virtually monopolized by females
615. Wife to Husband Institutionalized Deference (Guttman Scale)
102 99 = Missing Data
29 1 = None of the following coded
15 2 = Husband dominates domestic decision making
21 3 = + Wife excluded from many social gatherings
9 4 = + Wife rarely disputes husband
7 5 = + Husband has seating priority
3 6 = + Wife kneels and bows when greeting husband
616. A Stated Preference for Children of One Sex
93 99 = Missing Data
28 1 = For males
54 2 = Equal, no preference
11 3 = For females
617. Any Evidence of Infanticide
115 99 = Missing Data
6 1 = Mostly for females
64 2 = For both, or for neither
1 3 = Mostly for males
618. Early Training for Adult Duties
93 99 = Missing Data
1 1 = Boys are trained earlier generally
70 2 = Training begins at roughly equal ages,
no stated bias by sex
22 3 = Girls are trained earlier generally
619. Punishment for Equal Misbehavior
93 99 = Missing Data
3 1 = Boys are punished more severely
82 2 = Punishment about equal, no stated bias by sex
8 3 = Girls are punished more severely
620. Physical Punishment of the Spouse Condoned
123 99 = Missing Data
39 1 = Only husband hitting wife generally
16 2 = Physical punishment by neither
8 3 = Either may hit the other, or only wife may hit husband
621. An Explicit View that Men Should and Do Dominate their Wives
123 99 = Missing Data
42 1 = Yes
19 2 = No, evidence of rough equality
2 3 = No, evidence of wife dominance
622. Attendance and Participation in General Community Gathering
124 99 = Missing Data
27 1 = Only men, or both, but men more often or more
prominently
35 2 = Both equally, although perhaps segregated
623. Existence of General Female Initiation Ceremonies
110 99 = Missing Data
36 1 = No initiations for females
8 2 = Customary minimal social recognition
10 3 = +Personal dramatization of the initiate
12 4 = +Organized social response
10 5 = +Affective social response (e.g., punishment or
operations)
624. Any Belief that the Status of Women has Changed in Folklore or
History
93 99 = Missing Data
6 1 = A belief it has declined
83 2 = No such belief, or no change
4 3 = A belief it has improved
625. High Value Placed on Males being Aggressive, Strong, and Sexually
Potent
105 99 = Missing Data
26 1 = Marked emphasis
33 2 = Moderate emphasis
22 3 = Little or no emphasis
626. Belief that Women are Generally Inferior to Men
93 99 = Missing Data
27 1 = Yes
66 2 = No such belief
627. A Statement that Women Have More Informal Influence than Formal
Norms of the Society Would Make It Appear
93 99 = Missing Data
49 1 = No such statement or implication
25 2 = A statement or implication of somewhat more informal
influence
19 3 = A statement or implication of much more informal
influence
628. Property Control Scale
93 99 = Missing Data
4 1 = Women have low control over property
19 2 =
60 3 =
10 4 = Women have high control over property
629. Kin Power Scale
93 99 = Missing Data
19 1 = Low power of women in kinship contexts
52 2 =
22 3 = High power of women in kinship contexts
630. Value of Life Scale
93 99 = Missing Data
8 1 = Low value placed on women's lives
37 2 =
48 3 = High value placed on women's lives
631. Value of Labor
93 99 = Missing Data
1 1 = Low value of women's labor
9 2 =
40 3 =
34 4 =
9 5 = High value of women's labor
632. Domestic Authority Scale
97 99 = Missing Data
8 1 = Low women's domestic authority
21 2 =
32 3 =
28 4 = High women's domestic authority
633. Ritualized Female Solidarity Scale
93 99 = Missing Data
26 1 = Low female solidarity
38 2
29 3 = High female solidarity
634. Control of Sex Scale
94 99 = Missing Data
3 1 = Stricter controls over women's marital and
sexual lives
56 2 =
33 3 = More equal controls over women's marital and
sexual lives
635. Ritualized Fear Scale
93 99 = Missing Data
6 1 = High ritualized fear of women
18 2 =
69 3 = Low ritualized fear of women
636. Joint Participation Scale
95 99 = Missing Data
10 1 = Low joint participation of men and women
50 2 =
31 3 = High joint participation of men and women
CULTURAL THEORIES OF ILLNESS
George P. Murdock and Suzanne Wilson. 1978. ETHNOLOGY 17:449-470.
651. Theories of Contagion
58 99 = Missing data
81 1 = Absence of such a cause
46 2 = Minor or relatively unimportant cause
1 3 = An important auxiliary cause
0 4 = Predominant cause recognized by the society
652. Theories of Mystical Retribution
55 99 = Missing data
26 1 = Absence of such a cause
68 2 = Minor or relatively unimportant cause
32 3 = An important auxiliary cause
5 4 = Predominant cause recognized by the society
653. Theories of Soul Loss
59 99 = Missing data
96 1 = Absence of such a cause
30 2 = Minor or relatively unimportant cause
1 3 = An important auxiliary cause
0 4 = Predominant cause recognized by the society
654. Theories of Spirit Aggression
55 99 = Missing data
2 1 = Absence of such a cause
18 2 = Minor or relatively unimportant cause
37 3 = An important auxiliary cause
74 4 = Predominant cause recognized by the society
655. Theories of Sorcery
56 99 = Missing data
16 1 = Absence of such a cause
45 2 = Minor or relatively unimportant cause
45 3 = An important auxiliary cause
24 4 = Predominant cause recognized by the society
656. Theories of Witchcraft
55 99 = Missing data
81 1 = Absence of such a cause
24 2 = Minor or relatively unimportant cause
17 3 = An important auxiliary cause
9 4 = Predominant cause recognized by the society
FEMALE POWER AND MALE DOMINANCE
Sanday, Peggy. 1981. FEMALE POWER AND MALE DOMINANCE. Previously
unpublished codes provided by the author.
657. Flexible Marriage Mores (Divorce for both men and women: or mild
punishment for adultery)
44 99 = Missing data
28 1 = Absent
114 2 = Present
658. Females Produce Goods for Nondomestic Distribution
34 99 = Missing data
27 1 = Absent
125 2 = Present
659. Demand for Female Produce beyond Household
51 99 = Missing data
40 1 = Absent
95 2 = Present
660. Female Economic Control of Products of Own Labor
47 99 = Missing data
41 1 = Absent
98 2 = Present
661. Female Political Participation, at least informal influence
41 99 = Missing data
62 1 = Absent
83 2 = Present
662. Female Solidarity Groups, formal or informal
56 99 = Missing data
93 1 = Absent
37 2 = Present
663. Female Power Guttman Scale
53 99 = Missing data
11 1 = all items absent
9 2 = flexible marriage mores only (657)
5 3 = plus female nondomestic production (658)
13 4 = plus demand for female produce (659)
23 5 = plus female economic control (660)
41 6 = plus female political participation
31 7 = plus female solidarity groups
664. Ideology of Male Toughness
78 99 = Missing data
21 1 = Absent
87 2 = Present
665. Male Segregation: One or more places where males congregate alone,
or males occupy a separate part of the household, or there is sharp
ceremonial segregation of the sexes.
75 99 = Missing data
24 1 = Absent
87 2 = Present
666. Moderate or Frequent Interpersonal Violence
55 99 = Missing data
43 1 = Absent
88 2 = Present
667. Rape: Incidents reports, or thought of as means of punishment
women, or part of ceremony.
91 99 = Missing data
45 1 = Absent
50 2 = Present
668. At least some Wives taken from Hostile Groups
55 99 = Missing data
84 1 = Absent
47 2 = Present
669. Male Aggression Guttman Scale
79 99 = Missing data
15 1 = no items present (664)
5 2 = ideology of male toughness only (665)
18 3 = plus separate places for men (666)
12 4 = plus interpersonal violence (667)
19 5 = plus rape institutionalized or reported (668)
38 6 = plus taking wives from hostile groups (669)
670. Composite Male Dominance (663 plus 669): Lo Female Power, High
Male Aggression.
47 99 = Missing data
45 1 = sexes `equal' -- i.e., female power scale 5 or above,
and male aggression scale 4 or below
55 2 = Amythical@ male -- female power scale 5 or above,
and male aggression scale 5 or above
39 3 = sexes Aunequal@--female power scale 4 or below
Pollution Beliefs
671. Menstrual Taboos (H16)
76 99 = Missing data
8 1 = no menstrual restrictions
26 2 = one restriction present
25 3 = two restrictions
17 4 = three
15 5 = four
19 6 = five
672. Male Avoidance of Female Sexuality (A11)
(CHECK IF CORRECT ASSIGNMENT OF CODES)
76 99 = Missing data
26 1 = none
51 2 = sexual intercourse prohibited during menstruation
31 3 = sexual intercourse prohibited at other times also
8 4 = men avoid or fear female genitals
Creation Stories
673. Sex of Creative Agent, Ancestor, or Culture-Hero
147 99 = Missing data
6 1 = Female
2 2 = Sexless
6 3 = Couple
9 4 = Male
3 5 = Animal
13 6 = Supreme being or force
674. Origin of First Creator or Ancestor
147 99 = Missing data, or no information
13 1 = From within (`feminine')
3 2 = From within and without
21 3 = From without (`masculine')
2 4 = Void
675. Mode of First-Mentioned Creation
147 99 = Missing data
14 1 = From the body: Union and/or birth
2 2 = From the body: Self-propagation
20 3 = From other than the body
3 4 = Cannot be determined
676. Creation Stories (composite of 675 and 656, plus additional societies)
74 99 = Missing
20 1 = feminine symbolism
36 2 = couple symbolism
56 3 = masculine symbolism
NOTE: information in Table C.4 sufficient to distinguish:
1 = feminine symbolism
2 = masculine-feminine symbolism: ambiguous
3 = couple symbolism
4 = masculine symbolism: discrepant feminine element also present
5 = masculine symbolism
Predictor Variables
677. Migration
81 99 = Missing data
47 1 = aboriginal area or migrated centuries ago
58 2 = recent migration, within past 100-150 years, or
people are said to be migrating conquerors
678. Food Stress or Hunger
48 99 = Missing data
47 1 = food constant
62 2 = occasional hunger or famine
26 3 = periodic or chronic hunger
3 4 = starvation or evidence of protein deficiency
(NOTE: exact coding distinction between 3 and 4 unclear)
679. Warfare or Fighting
53 99 = Missing data
41 1 = absent or occasional or periodical
92 2 = frequent or endemic
FEMALE STATUS: INDEPENDENT VARIABLES PART 1
Whyte, Martin K. 1978. THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN PREINDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES.
Princeton University Press. Previously Unpublished codes provided by
the author.
ONLY THE ODD NUMBERED SOCIETIES ARE CODED IN THIS STUDY.
693. Frequency of Intercommunity Armed Conflict
95 . = Missing data
49 1 = Past, supralocal, or absent
42 2 = Present and endemic local warfare (collapsed from an
original five categories)
694. Male Initiation Ceremonies (Guttman Scale - see Frank Young, 1965)
(coefficient of scalability = .76)
111 . = Missing data
37 1 = No initiation
10 2 = Minimal social recognition
7 3 = Personal dramatization of the initiate
3 4 = Organized social response
18 5 = Affective social response: beating, hazing or operations
695. Male Solidarity (Guttman Scale - see Young and Bacdayan 1965)
(scalability = .88)
93 . = Missing data
57 1 = No institutionalized male solidarity
7 2 = Some exclusive male activity protected by physical or
normative barriers
6 3 = Ritualization given to this activity
14 4 = Definite ranking of men within this activity
9 5 = War training or planning a part of this activity
700. Crimes against Person Punished
94 . = Missing data
37 1 = By person or group wronged
55 2 = By government action
704. Private Property
102 . = Missing data
70 1 = Absent
14 2 = Present
711. Societal Complexity (Guttman Scale - Freeman and Winch 1957)
(scalability .643, a shade below accepted minimum of .65)
93 . = Missing data
37 1 = Absence of all traits in scale
13 2 = Crimes punished by government (704)
9 3 = Full-time specialized priests
1 4 = Formal education
8 5 = Written language
25 6 = Full-time bureaucrats (705)
712. Institutionalized Envy (scaled by unweighted sum for presence or
absence of four correlated indicators -- (a) men imitate women,
(b) women imitate men, and (c) exclusive mother-infant sleeping,
and (3) exclusive mother-child sleeping). Constructed arithmetically
from means and cutting points.
100 . = Missing data
13 1 = No items present
14 2 = One or two item present
59 3 = Three of four items present
713. Religion
93 . = Missing data
14 1 = Classical religion (Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism)
31 2 = Mixture of classical and pre-classical
48 3 = Pre-classical
714. Sex Ratio (WARNING: subject to errors in ethnographic reporting)
96 . = Missing data
10 1 = Female excess
60 2 = Roughly equal
20 3 = Male excess
715. Systematic Absences of Married Males (Military service, Labor
elsewhere, Extended trade expeditions, etc.)
94 . = Missing data
38 1 = No systematic absences
6 2 = Systematic absences -- not presently, but within memory
of present adults
48 3 = Systematic absences common presently
QUALITY CONTROL VARIABLES
716. Sex of Coders
93 . = Missing data
12 1 = Both male
43 2 = Male and female
38 3 = Both female
720. Sex of Authorities
93 . = Missing data
66 1 = All males
23 2 = Mixed males and females
4 3 = All females
722. Occupation of Authorities
95 . = Missing data (or some or all unknown)
55 1 = No anthropologist
30 2 = Some anthropologists
6 3 = All anthropologists
723. Formal Fieldwork training of authorities
94 . = Missing data (or some or all unknown)
56 1 = All had some
29 2 = some had
7 3 = None had any
724. Knowledge of native language
99 . = Missing data (or some or all unknown)
52 1 = All knew it well
33 2 = Some knew it well
2 3 = None knew it well
725. Total periods of fieldwork
97 . = Missing data (or some or all unknown)
11 1 = One year or less
36 2 = One to three years
42 3 = More than three years
726. Anthropological Present
93 . = Missing data
8 1 = Before 1800 A.D.
34 2 = 1801-1900
40 3 = 1901-1950
11 4 = After 1950 A.D.
HUSBAND-WIFE RELATIONSHIPS
Broude, Gwen, and Sarah J. Greene. 1983. Cross-Cultural Codes on
Husband-Wife Relationships. ETHNOLOGY 22:263-280.
Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors.
739. Marriage Arrangements
38 . = Missing data
46 1 = Individual selects and/or courts partner autonomously:
approval by parents or others unnecessary
26 2 = Individual selects and/or courts partner autonomously:
parental, kin, and/or community approval necessary or
highly desirable
5 3 = Individual suggests partner to parents or others:
arrangements for courtship or marriage then proceed
if choice is approved OR parents ask approval of
individuals to initiate a match OR individual is
approached by parent or others on behalf of suitor
and can accept or reject the match
27 4 = Individual choice and arranged marriages are alternatives
25 5 = Parents choose partner: individual can object
19 6 = Parents choose partner: individual cannot easily object
or rarely objects in fact
740. Marriage Arrangements (Female)
35 . = Missing data
12 1 = Individual selects and/or courts partner autonomously:
approval by parents or others unnecessary
40 2 = Individual selects and/or courts partner autonomously:
parental, kin, and/or community approval necessary or
highly desirable
4 3 = Individual suggests partner to parents or others;
arrangements for courtship or marriage then proceed if
choice is approved OR parents ask approval of individuals
to initiate a match OR individual is approached by parent
or others on behalf of suitor and can accept or reject
the match
27 4 = Individual choice and arranged marriages are alternatives
35 5 = Parents choose partner: individual can object
33 6 = Parents choose partner: individual cannot easily object
or rarely objects in fact
741. Widow Remarriage: Choice of Partner
94 . = Missing data
28 1 = Widow chooses new husband herself with no outside
interferences
27 2 = Remarriage into first husband's kin group usually or
preferred, but widow can choose new husband from elsewhere
if she wishes
4 3 = Widow chooses new husband herself, but from first husband's
kin group or community
27 4 = Widow's husband's kin chooses new husband
6 5 = Remarriage is absent, uncommon, or strongly disapproved
742. Time of Mourning Before Remarriage of Widows
147 . = Missing data
4 1 = No period of mourning: remarriage as soon as possible
3 2 = One week to two months of mourning
9 3 = Over two months but less than one year of mourning
18 4 = One year or over of mourning
5 5 = No remarriage
743. Attitude towards Divorce
126 . = Missing data
11 1 = Expected, accepted, tolerated, not disapproved
16 2 = Mildly disapproved, e.g., attempts by others to
reconcile couple, marriages expected to be permanent
but divorce accepted without stigma if inevitable
11 3 = Approved if reasons are considered justified; otherwise
disapproved
11 4 = Expected, accepted, tolerated, not disapproved in
first years of marriage and/or before children; otherwise
disapproved
11 5 = Strongly disapproved; stigma attached to divorce
744. Frequency of Divorce
101 . = Missing data
8 1 = Universal or almost universal
31 2 = Common, frequent, not uncommon
11 3 = Moderate: a small minority of couples divorce
10 4 = Frequent in first years of marriage and/or before
children; rare thereafter
25 5 = Rare, isolated instances, never
745. Grounds for Divorce (Male)
105 . = Missing data
54 1 = No grounds necessary for divorce; divorce equally
easy or difficult with out without justification
17 2 = Grounds not absolutely necessary, but divorce is
financially, legally and/or socially earlier with them
7 3 = Divorce only with grounds
3 4 = No divorce
746. Grounds for Divorce (Female)
104 . = Missing data
39 1 = No grounds necessary for divorce; divorce equally easy
or difficult with or without justification
30 2 = Grounds not absolutely necessary, but divorce is
financially, legally and/or socially easier with them
9 3 = Divorce only with grounds
4 4 = No divorce
748. Customs surrounding Consummation of Marriage
120 . = Missing data
21 1 = Socially recognized as a special occasion and couple
granted privacy
6 2 = Special occasion and private, but signal of consummation
proof of potency, virginity awaited by others
8 3 = Special occasion, others present
31 4 = Not a special occasion
750. Sleeping Proximity between Husbands and Wives
76 . = Missing data
43 1 = Same room and close proximity: e.g., same bed, same
blanket, touching, back to back, adjacent sleeping
places allocated to spouses
15 2 = Same room but no close proximity: e.g., different beds,
different hammocks, different sections of room
45 3 = Same room, proximity unknown
7 4 = Different rooms
751. Privacy in Sleeping for Husbands and Wives (Only if Husband and
Wife sleep in Same Room)
96 . = Missing data
6 1 = Husband and wife sleep together alone or with infants
13 2 = Husband and wife sleep with prepubescent children
6 3 = Unmarried members of nuclear family sleep with husband
and wife, but either sons or daughters sleep elsewhere
after early childhood
22 4 = All members of nuclear family below marriageable age
sleep with husband and wife
11 5 = Other adults occasionally sleep with husband and wife;
e.g., other adult dependents who are temporary members
of the newlyweds household
32 6 = Other adults permanently sleep with husband and wife
752. Husband-Wife Eating Arrangements
76 . = Missing data
71 1 = Husband and wife usually eat together
11 2 = Husband and wife are together during meals; wife does
not eat with husband, but serves him and/or converses
28 3 = Husband and wife often, usually, or always eat apart
753. Husband-Wife Leisure Time Activities
88 . = Missing data
4 1 = Husband and wife usually spend leisure time together
and at home, alone or with nuclear or extended family members
21 2 = Husband and wife sometimes spend leisure time together at
home, and sometimes together in a group (e.g., they go
over or have visitors); same-sex activities may be present,
but they are not salient
21 3 = Husband and wife usually spend leisure time together, but
group activities are emphasized: e.g., couple go to dances
together, spend their time habitually in camp with others
28 4 = Husband and wife sometimes spend leisure time together as
a couple or in a group, but sex-segregated activities are
also salient: e.g., couple goes to dances, market together,
but then join same-sex group
24 5 = Husband and wife generally spend leisure time apart:
same-sex activities predominate
754. Wife-Beating
116 . = Missing data
14 1 = Absent
56 2 = Present
755. Husband Attends Birth
118 . = Missing data
11 1 = Husbands expected or allowed to attend the births of
their children and usually do
4 2 = No taboo against presence of husband at births but
husbands often (?) or usually are absent
4 3 = Husbands attend births only in emergencies
8 4 = Husbands not allowed to attend births, but have specific
tasks or roles associated with labor or delivery
41 5 Husbands not allowed to attend births and are explicitly
barred from playing any role in labor or delivery
POLITICAL DECISION MAKING AND CONFLICT
Marc Ross, 1983. Political Decision Making and Conflict: Additional
Cross-Cultural Codes and Scales. ETHNOLOGY 22: 169-192.
Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors.
Ross selected the even numbered societies in the standard sample to code,
and numbered them 1 to 93. If data were insufficient to code, he substituted
the previous or next society depending on whether their number was even or
odd in the list. If the first substitute was inadequate, a second substitute
(the opposite adjacent society) was tried. He found 33 cases with insufficient
data to code: 10, 14, 15, 24, 32, 38, 39, 44, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 66, 67, 74,
75, 76, 78, 80, 86, 88, 120, 126, 146, 152, 154, 155, 160, 170, 171, 178, 182.
He needed 26 odd-numbered substitutions of adjacent societies, but had to drop
three cases with no adequate second substitute, for a total coded sample of 90.
There are 63 societies remaining to code for his variables.
767. Conflict (Social or Political) in the Local Community
96 99 = Missing data
4 1 = Endemic: a reality of daily existence (e.g., physical
violence, feuding, bitter factionalism)
20 2 = High: Conflict present but not a pervasive aspect of
daily life
46 3 = Moderate: Disagreements and differences do not result
in high violence or severe disruption
20 4 = Mild or rare
768. Conflict between Communities of the Same Society
97 99 = Missing data
25 1 = Endemic: High physical violence, feuding, and/or
raiding occur regularly
23 2 = Moderately High, often involving physical violence
21 3 = Moderate: Disputes may occur regularly but tendency
to manage them in a more or less peaceful manner
20 4 = Mild or rare
770. Resort to Physical Force by Disputants in settling disputes, Exclusive
of Police or institutionalized force,
96 99 = Missing data
34 1 = Often used
32 2 = Sometimes used
24 3 = Rarely or never used
771. Mediation/Negotiation/Arbitration: Third parties in disputes,
unable to impose a binding decision, but may facilitate settlement
98 99 = Missing data
57 1 = Often used (to settle disputes)
19 2 = Sometimes used
12 3 = Rarely or never used
773. Internal Warfare (Between communities of same society)
101 99 = Missing data
31 1 = Frequent, occurring at least yearly
14 2 = Common, at least every five years
10 3 = Occasional, at least every generation
30 4 = Rare or never
774. External Warfare (with other societies)
102 99 = Missing data
45 1 = Frequent, occurring at least yearly
13 2 = Common, at least every five years
6 3 = Occasional, at least every generation
20 4 = Rare or never
781. Acceptability of Violence toward Members of the local Community
100 99 = Missing data
0 1 = Valued
7 2 = Acceptable
18 3 = Tolerated
61 4 = Disapproved
782. Acceptability of Violence toward Members of the Same Society, but
outside the Local Community
109 99 = Missing data
12 1 = Valued
28 2 = Acceptable
10 3 = Tolerated
27 4 = Disapproved
783. Acceptability of Violence toward people in Other Societies
122 99 = Missing data
39 1 = Valued
16 2 = Acceptable
3 3 = Tolerated
6 4 = Disapproved
789. Type of Cross-Cutting ties: Age Organizations (Grades, Sets) Cutting
across Communities
97 99 = Missing data
78 1 = Absent
5 2 = Present but not politically important
6 3 = Present and political important
793. Female Participation in Public Political Arenas, Relative to Males
106 99 = Missing data
8 1 = High: in some situations equal to or greater than that of men
27 2 = Significant but not as high as male involvement
19 3 = Not great but clearly some role for women in public aspects
of political life
26 4 = Women generally excluded from public aspects of politics
794. Female Participation in Private Political Arenas, Relative to Males
120 99 = Missing data
35 1 = High: in some situations equal to or greater than that
of men
15 2 = Significant but not as high as male involvement
12 3 = Not great but clearly some role for women in private
aspects of political life
4 4 = Women do not seem to get involved in political life in
private arenas
795. Gender differences in Political or Quasi-Political Positions of
Authority
102 99 = Missing data
8 1 = Women and men eligible for some of the same positions
and women commonly do so
18 2 = Women and men eligible for some of the same positions
and women occasionally do so
7 3 = Women rarely, if ever, hold some of the same positions
regardless of rules of eligibility
51 4 = The same political positions are not open to both women
and men
796. Separate Female Organizations and Positions
117 99 = Missing data
22 1 = Some associations or organizations under exclusive
control of women
15 2 = No associations but some positions of authority for
which only women are eligible
32 3 = No associations or positions exclusively controlled
by women
ADOLESCENT SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
Herbert Barry, III, and Alice Schlegel. 1984. Measurements of Adolescent
Sexual Behavior in the Standard Sample of Societies. ETHNOLOGY 23: 315-332.
Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors.
827. Sexual Expression in Adolescent Boys and Girls:
828. Sexual Expression in Adolescent Boys and Girls:
Encouragement of sexual behavior, taking into account its frequency,
emotional intensity, importance, and variety (including range of
partners) in adolescence. Heterosexual intercourse is the principal
criterion, but heterosexual foreplay, masturbation, homosexuality,
sexual jokes, and exposing the genitals were also considered.
Heterosexual intercourse and others forms of sexual expression are:
Boys Girls
99 = missing data 32 28
0 = 0 1
1 = 9 23
2 = Not approved or admired by parents
or authorities. Mild forms (e.g.
sexual jokes) sometimes approved. 27 37
3 = 5 3
4 = 12 10
5 = Normally and generally approved
[by parents, etc.]. Moderate frequency,
intensity, importance, variety 33 31
6 = 15 9
7 = 7 7
8 = Strongly approved and valued
[by parents, etc.]. High frequency,
variety of sexual behavior admired. 44 34
9 = 2 3
10 = 0 0
829. Sexual Non-restraint in Adolescent Boys and Girls:
830. Sexual Non-restraint in Adolescent Boys and Girls:
The absence of sexual restraints such as taboos or restrictions on
heterosexual intercourse and other erotic behavior, including heterosexual
play, masturbation, and homosexuality. A high degree of modesty, such as
the requirement to keep the genitals constantly covered in public, indicates
moderate restraint. Incest taboos, if highly emphasized or widely extended,
are considered as indicators of restraint.
Heterosexual intercourse and others forms of sexual expression are:
Boys Girls
99 = 31 27
0 = 0 1
1 = 4 7
2 = Strictly and effectively prohibited 21 36
3 = 7 10
4 = 10 9
5 = Disapproved and punished mildly
and inconsistent 30 32
6 = 13 9
7 = 5 3
8 = Condoned and not generally punished 45 37
9 = 20 15
10 = 0 0
NOTE: Sexual Non-restraint = Sexual Expression + 1 more or less.
The authors indicate the advisability of using the sum of the two
scores as a "Sexual Freedom" index.
"Sexual Non-restraint" variables for boys and girls in early and late
childhood are formed by the following recodings of variables 326-329:
0 = 11 on variables 326-329
1 = 10
2 = 9
3 = 8 Note: Var. 326 = Early, boys
4 = 7 327 = Early, girls
5 = 6
6 = 5
7 = 4 Var. 328 = Late, boys
8 = 3 329 = Late, girls
9 = 2
10 = 1
831. Differentiation of Adolescence from Childhood for Boys, Girls:
832. Differentiation of Adolescence from Childhood for Boys, Girls:
These variables were recoded on a three point scale, collapsed from a 0-10
rating. No cases of 0-1 or 9-10 ratings were reported.
Differentiation of adolescent from preadolescent activities, status, and
all other attributes of behavior and self-concept: (codesheet definition).
Boys Girls
99 = 20 22
1 = (2)Low, mostly the same, no formal
transition. Frequent companionship
between the two stages
(3)
(4) 48 62
2 = (5)Substantial, but inconsistent,
not formalized, or companionship
only for some activities
(6)
(7) 57 59
3 = (8)High, with formal transition.
Infrequent companionship with
younger children. 61 43
George P. Murdock and Douglas R. White. 1969. Standard Cross-Cultural
Sample. ETHNOLOGY 8: 329-369.
Compiled with permission of Ethnology journal editors.
839. Pinpointing Date by Decade
1 11 = 110 AD
1 29 = 1290
1 52 = 1520
1 53 = 1530
1 55 = 1550
1 62 = 1620
1 63 = 1630
2 65 = 1650
1 71 = 1710
2 75 = 1750
1 77 = 1770
2 80 = 1800
2 82 = 1820
1 83 = 1830
3 84 = 1840
6 85 = 1850
9 86 = 1860
7 87 = 1870
10 88 = 1880
12 89 = 1890
15 90 = 1900
16 91 = 1910
15 92 = 1920
31 93 = 1930
14 94 = 1940
24 95 = 1950
6 96 = 1960
POLYGYNY: FORM AND FREQUENCY
Douglas R. White. New Codes (begun in collaboration with John Whiting).
Prepared in part under National Science Foundation grant BNS-8507685.
See 1988 "Rethinking Polygyny: Co-Wives, Codes and Cultural Systems."
Current Anthropology 29:529-571.
863. Distance between Co-Wives
30 99 = Missing data
1 0 = One wife, multiple husbands
25 1 = One wife (Atlas M)
59 2 = Co-residence for multiple wives (Atlas PR)
25 3 = One wife resides with husband, others in separate houses
13 4 = One wife resides with husband, others in separate communities
31 5 = Separate housing in compound for every wife (Atlas QS)
2 6 = Separate housing in village for every wife [as might occur,
for example, with men's houses, e.g., Otoro - check]
866. Higher rates of polygyny for men of wealth, rank, nobility, or higher
social class.
* = merge 1-3: incomplete coding for categories above 1
31 99 = Missing data
64 0 = No Stratified polygyny
92 1 = Stratified Polygyny
?10 = Hereditary upper social class (note: incompletely coded)
? 9 = Achieved rank connected with groups (note: incompletely coded)
?73 = Achieved wealth - due to contributions of wives (ditto)
868. Multiple wives for Leaders, Headmen, Chiefs
24 99 = Missing data
95 0 = No, or unimportant
67 1 = Yes, or Leaders have more wives than commoners
869. Multiple wives for Medicine Men or Shamans
NOTE: sometimes coded 0 for General polygyny although magicians also
polygynous--unclear whether higher polygyny level should be required in
this instance for this code
25 99 = Missing data
141 0 = No, or unimportant
20 1 = Yes
870. Additional wives or concubines from Slavery or Capture in Warfare
NOTE: It is often difficult to distinguish secondary wives taken as slave
concubines, or marriage to freed slaves, and wives taken from capture in
warfare, as slavery areas often capture slaves
28 99 = Missing data
100 0 = No female captives
? 8 1 = Women taken as captives but not married
?58 2 = Captives in war or slaves taken as wives or concubines
877. Polygyny Guttman Scale I: "Co-Wife Autonomy"
5 99 = Missing data
69 0 = None of the following
51 1 = Stratified Polygyny (854) only
6 2 = Negative binomial (855), plus above
13 3 = Marriage of female captives (858), plus above
7 4 = General polygyny (849), plus above
9 5 = Rooming apart (853), plus above
26 6 = Polygynous compounds (852), plus above
878. Polygyny Guttman Scale II: "Charismatic"
4 99 = Missing data
44 0 = None of the following
72 1 = Rooming together (853) only
26 2 = Co-Wives same dwelling (852), plus above
25 3 = Sororal (851), plus above
9 4 = Polygynous hunters (855), plus above
6 5 = Exclusive sororal polygyny (851), plus above
THE NATURE OF WARFARE
Valerie Wheeler [Nammour], 1974. Drums and Guns: A Cross-Cultural Study of
the Nature of War. Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Oregon.
The author's comments on reliability and validity are cited after each code,
where relevant.
References cited:
Naroll, Raoul. 1966. Does military deterrence deter? Trans-Action 3(2):
14-20.
Otterbein, Keith F. 1970. The Evolution of War: A Cross-cultural study.
HRAF Press.
907. VALUE OF WAR: VIOLENCE/WAR AGAINST NON-MEMBERS OF THE GROUP
40 99 = Missing Data
72 1 = Enjoyed and considered to have high value
51 2 = Considered to be a necessary evil
23 3 = Consistently avoided, denounced, not engaged in
"This variable complements but does not duplicate, or resolve, variable
[906].... Clumsy as this variable may seem, it was quite easy to code,
largely due to clear observation by the ethnographer as to the value of war.
The evidence may be comments by the observer, texts or poems and songs, or
statements by the actors." Wheeler 1974: 275
909. SUBJUGATION OF TERRITORY OR PEOPLE
18 99 = Missing Data
35 1 = Present
133 2 = Absent or not mentioned
910. COLLECTION OF TRIBUTE
18 99 = Missing Data
18 1 = Present
150 2 = Absent or not mentioned
911. ACQUISITION OF LAND: FIELDS, HUNTING/FISHING TERRITORIES, PASTURES
18 99 = Missing Data
50 1 = Present
118 2 = Absent or not mentioned
912. PLUNDER (INCLUDING CAPTIVES FOR SLAVES, HOSTAGES, ADOPTION)
18 99 = Missing Data
104 1 = Present
64 2 = Absent or not mentioned
913. TROPHIES AND HONORS (INCLUDING CAPTIVES FOR SACRIFICE)
18 99 = Missing Data
49 1 = Present
119 2 = Absent or not mentioned
914. REVENGE
17 99 = Missing Data
111 1 = Present
58 2 = Absent or not mentioned